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Seneca and pigeon: Harris 1903:449–51.
“living, pulsing”: French 1919:1.
Leopold and monument: Leopold 1968.
Mast competition, lack of passenger pigeons: Interview, Neumann, Woods; Neumann 2002:158–64, 169–72; Herrmann and Woods 2003 (I thank Prof. Woods for giving me a copy of this paper).
Seton’s estimate: Seton 1929 (vol. 3):654–56. See, in general, Krech 1999:chap. 5.
Lott’s and other modern estimates of abundance: Lott 2002:69–76 (“primitive America,” 76); Flores 1997; 1991 (“perhaps” twenty-eight to thirty million, 471); Weber 2001 (“more likely” twenty to forty-four million). Shaw (1995) and Geist (1998) suggested the number should be ten to fifteen million.
Inka tree farms: Daniel W. Gade, pers. comm.
De Soto never saw bison: Crosby 1986:213.
La Salle’s buffalo: Parkman 1983 (vol. 1):765.
“post-Columbian abundance”: Geist 1998:62–63.
Elk begin to appear: Kay 1995.
California: Preston 2002 (Drake, 129).
“The virgin forest”: Pyne 1982:46–47. See also, Jennings 1975:30.
“artificial wilderness”: I borrow the phrase from Callicott and Nelson eds. 1998:11.
More “forest primeval” in nineteenth century: Denevan 1992a:377–81 (“pristine myth” article).
Cronon, academic brouhaha: Cronon 1995a, 1995b; Soulé and Lease eds. 1995; Callicott and Nelson eds. 1998 (“Euro-American men,” 2). An abridged version of Cronon 1996b appeared in the New York Times Sunday Magazine, 13 Aug. 1995.
Making gardens: Janzen 1998.
Creating future environments: I have borrowed the phrase and the thought from McCann 1999a:3.
11 / The Great Law of Peace
Nabokov in New York: Boyd 1991:11–12.
Early history of Haudenosaunee, Deganawidah story: Fenton 1998; Snow 1994:58–65; Hertzberg 1966.
Rules of operation: Tooker 1988:312–17. The basic source is Morgan 1901:77ff.
Checks and balances: Grinde 1992:235–40; Tehanetorens 1971 (“especially important,” sec. 93; impeachment grounds and procedures, secs. 19–25, 39 (“warnings,” sec. 19); rights of individuals and nations, secs. 93–98). A modern translation is online at http://www.iroquoisdemocracy.pdx.edu/html/greatlaw.html.
“they will not conclude”: Williams 1936:201.
Iroquois women: Wagner 2001; Parker 1911:252–53 (“Does the modern American woman [who] is a petitioner before man, pleading for her political rights, ever stop to consider that the red woman that lived in New York state five hundred years ago, had far more political rights and enjoyed a much wider liberty than the twentieth century woman of civilization?”). I thank Robert Crease for helping me obtain this source.
Underwood’s estimate: cited in Johansen 1995:62.
Condolence Canes: Barreiro and Cornelius eds. 1991; Fenton 1983.
Age of council: Mann and Fields 1997. See also, Johansen 1995.
Haudenosaunee as second oldest: Some of the Swiss cantons have continuously functioning parliaments that are older, too. But I did not include them because the individual cantons seem more comparable to the individual nations of Haudenosaunee than to the league as a whole.
Great Law as inspiration: Grinde and Johansen 1991; Grinde 1977; Johansen 1987; Wright 1992:94 (“Their whole”).
Differences between Constitution and Great Law: Venables 1992:74–124 (Adams’s reminiscences, 108).
Franklin: Johansen 1987:40–42.
Indian freedoms: Josephy ed. 1993:29.
“Every man”: Quoted in Venables 1992:235.
“such absolute”: Colden 1747:100.
Perrot, Hennepin, Jesuit on Indian liberty: Quoted in Jaenen 1976:88 (Jesuit), 89 (Perrot), 92 (Hennepin).
Lahontan: Lahontan 1703 (vol. 2):8.
Montaigne: Montaigne 1991:233.
Greater attractiveness of native lives: Axtell 1975; Wilson 1999:67 (fleeing Jamestown). Axtell’s conclusions were sharply critiqued in Vaughan and Richter 1980; Axtell’s response (1981:351) was convincing, at least to me. See also Calloway 1986; Treckel and Axtell 1976.
Pilgrims dismayed by renegades: Salisbury 1982:128–33.
“When an Indian”: Quoted in Axtell 1975:57.
“troubled the power elite”: Jaenen 1976:95.
Appendixes
“I abhor”: Quoted at http://www.russellmeans.com/russell.html.
Insulting names: This is a separate issue from the use of Indian references on geographical features and U.S. sports teams, some of which have long annoyed Indians. Various efforts have been made to ban the use of “squaw,” for example, as in Squaw Valley, home of a big ski resort in California, on the grounds that the word is a vulgar term for the vagina used to demean native women. Most linguists do not believe this is true. Still, the use of specific terms for the women of an ethnic group rings oddly these days—one can’t imagine a resort called Jewess or Negress Valley. Redskin, as in the Washington Redskins, the football team of the U.S. capital, also seems unhappily anachronistic. According to the team, the name is intended to celebrate Indians’ warrior spirit, a good quality, and is therefore not derogatory. But it seems like calling a dance troupe the New York Pickaninnies and saying the name is intended to extol African Americans’ innate sense of rhythm, a good quality.
“snowshoe,” “people who”: Goddard 1984; Mailhot 1978.
Crosby on civilization: Crosby 2002:71. See also, Wright 2005:32–33.
“‘Tribe’ and ‘chiefdom’”: Kehoe 2002:245.
Khipu: For a brief overview, see Mann 2003.
“resembles a mop”: Joseph 1992:28.
Governor consults khipu: Collapiña, Supno et al. 1921.
Khipu are banned: Urton 2003:22, 49.
Locke and Mead on khipu: Mead 1923 (“the mystery”, n.p.). Locke (1923:32) shared Mead’s view: “The evidence is intrinsically against the supposition that the quipu was a conventional scheme of writing” (italics in original). For another early attempt at decipherment, see Nordenskiöld 1979.
“Inka had no writing”: Fagan 1991:50.
Aschers’ work: Interview, R. Ascher (“clearly non-numerical”); Ascher and Ascher 1997:87 (“rapidly developing”).
Urton and khipu writing: Urton 2003.
Breakdown of khipu meaning units: Urton 2003:chaps. 2–5 (“system of coding information…binary code,” 1; comparison with Sumer, Maya, Egypt, 117–18).
Khipu placename deciphered: Urton and Brezine 2005.
Miccinelli documents: Laurencich-Minelli 2001; Laurencich-Minelli et al. 1998, 1995; Zoppi 2000.
Tentative decipherment: Urton 2001.
Charles VIII and European syphilis epidemic: Baker and Armelagos 1988:708.
“lyen in fire”: Quoted in Crosby 2003:125–26.
Darwinian predictions about diseases: Ewald 1996:chap. 3. More precisely, nonvectorborne microorganisms evolve toward moderate malignity.
Díaz and Las Casas: Williams, Rice, and Lacayo 1927:690 (“origin”). My thanks to June Kinoshita for helping me obtain this article. On the origin of syphilis, Las Casas was unequivocal: “From the beginning, two things did and do afflict the Spanish on this island [Hispaniola]: the first is the sickness of the bubas [pustules], which in Italy is called the French disease. And I know for the truth that it came from this island or from when the first Indians came here, when Admiral Christopher Columbus returned with the news of the discovery of the Indies, which I saw in Seville, and they were stuck rotting in Spain, infecting the air or some other route, or else there were some Spanish with the disease among the first returnees to Castille.” Las Casas also says the epidemic began during the war in Naples (Las Casas 1992 [vol. 6]:361–62).
Recent syphilis findings: Rothschild and Rothschild 2000 (Colorado); 1996 (U.S. and Ecuador); Rothschild et al. 2000b (Caribbean). See also, Rogan and Lentz 1994, cited in Arriaza 1995:78.
Evidence for early European syphilis: E.g., Pearson 1924 (suggesting that Bruce’s
recently excavated skeleton and deathmask support a diagnosis of syphilis, rather than leprosy); Power 1992 (I am grateful to Robert Crease for making it possible for me to obtain this source); Stirland 1995:109–15. News reports indicate that other such skeletons exist, too, though some have not yet appeared in the scholarly literature (e.g., Studd 2001; Barr 2000). In the past, though, few of “the numerous cases of pre-Columbian Old World syphilis…have withstood reexamination” (Baker and Armelagos 1988:710).
Universal presence of syphilis: Hudson 1965a, 1965b.
Confusion with Hansen’s disease: Baker and Armelagos 1988:706–07.
Historians’ motives: Crosby, “Preface to the 2003 Edition,” in 2003b:xix.
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ABBREVIATIONS
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American Anthropologist
AmAnt
American Antiquity
AJHG
American Journal of Human Genetics
AAAG
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CA
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HE
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JAH
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JAR
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JB
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LAA
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NH
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NYT
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PNAS
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
QI
Quaternary International
QR
Quaternary Research
QSR
Quaternary Science Reviews
WA
World Archaeology
WMQ
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