1. J. R. McNeill and William H. McNeill, The Human Web, W. W. Norton, London 2003, pp. 11–13.
2. See Kenneth Pomeranz and Steven Topik, The World That Trade Created: Society, Culture and the World Economy, 1400 to the Present, M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, New York 2006, p. 47; see also Geoff Wade, ‘The Zheng He Voyages: A Reassessment’, Asia Research Institute, National University of Singapore: http://www.hsse.nie.edu.sg/hum2008/conference%20paper/pdf/Wade%20zhenghe%20humanitiesconf.pdf; see also Christian Grataloup, Géohistoire de la mondialisation, Armand Colin, Paris 2007, pp. 107–9.
3. Pomeranz and Topik, The World That Trade Created, p. 21.
4. Pierre Chaunu, Histoire, science sociale. La durée, l’espace et l’homme à l’époque moderne, SEDES, Paris 1974, pp. 188–91.
5. Saskia Sassen (ed.), Deciphering the Global: Its Scales, Spaces and Subjects, Routledge, London 2007, p. 5.
6. See Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society, vol. 1 of The Information Age, Blackwell, Oxford 1996, pp. 32–4.
7. Theodore Levitt, ‘The Globalization of Markets’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 61, no. 3, May–June 1983, pp. 92–102.
8. See GEMDEV (Groupement Économie Mondiale, Tiers-Monde, Développement), Mondialisation. Les mots et les choses, Khartala, Paris 1999, p. 7.
9. Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: The Diffusion of Power in the World Economy , Cambridge University Press 1996, p. xiii.
10. Judith A. Carney, Black Rice: The African Origins of Rice Cultivation in the Americas, Harvard University Press 2001.
11. Pomeranz and Topik, The World That Trade Created, p. xi.
12. Tracy Borman, Thomas Cromwell: The Untold Story of Henry VIII’s Most Faithful Servant, Hodder & Stoughton, London 2014, Chapter 9.
13. Christian Boudan, Géopolitique du goût. La guerre culinaire, Presses Universitaires de France, Paris 2004, pp. 287– 8.
14. Jean-Paul Aron, Le mangeur du XIXe siècle, Payot, Paris 1989, p. 109.
15. Ardant, Histoire financière, p. 333.
16. Veronika Hyden-Hanscho, ‘Invisible Globalization: French Hats in Habsburg Vienna, 1650–1750’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 45, no. 3, 2016, pp. 11–54.
17. Jeffrey G. Williamson, Globalization and the Poor Periphery before 1950, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 2006, pp. 12–15, 28.
18. Gregory Clark and Robert C. Feenstra, ‘Technology in the Great Divergence’, in Bordo, Taylor, and Williamson (eds), Globalization in Historical Perspective, p. 295.
19. Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (originally printed 1780, first published 1789), vol. 2, Pickering, London 1823, p. 261; the Marquis de Condorcet, Esquisse d’un tableau historique des progrès de l’esprit humain, ed. Oliver H. Prior, Vrin, Paris 1970, p. 211.
20. See CIA, World Factbook: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/appendix/appendix-g.html
21. F. S. L. Lyons, Internationalism in Europe, 1815–1914, A. W. Sythoff, Leiden 1963, p. 14.
22. Observatory of Economic Complexity, 2012 figures: http://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/show/all/8471/2012
23. Orlando Figes, The Whisperers: Private Life in Stalin’s Russia, Allen Lane, London 2007, p. 494.
24. Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, trans. R. D. Hicks, vol. 2, Heinemann, London and New York 1925, p. 65.
25. See the study promoted by the French government: Département des études, de la prospective et des statistiques, Cultures croisées. Références interculturelles des Allemands, des Italiens et des Français, November 2008: http://www.culture.gouv.fr/depscultéuturdees
26. Kenichi Ohmae, The End of the Nation State: The Rise of Regional Economies, The Free Press, New York 1995, pp. 5, 80.
27. Kenichi Ohmae, Beyond National Borders: Reflections on Japan and the World, Dow Jones-Irwin, Homewood, IL 1987, p. 3.
28. Gustave Hervé, L’internationalisme, Giard & Brière, Paris 1910, pp. 5, 172: ‘Les grandes patries modernes sont à peine nées, et voici que déjà elles sont minées par l’internationalisme.’
29. Fernand Braudel, L’identité de la France. Espace et histoire, Arthaud-Flammarion, Paris 1986, pp. 288– 90.
30. Anne-Marie Thiesse, La création des identités nationales. Europe XVIIIe–XXe siècle, Seuil, Paris 1999, pp. 50–51.
31. Karl Ferdinand Werner, Histoire de la France, vol. 1: Les Origines, Fayard, Paris 1984, p. 20.
32. Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, vol. 1: The Origins to 1795, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1981, pp. 21ff.
33. Ibid, p. 24.
34. Tessa Morris-Suzuki, Re-Inventing Japan: Time, Space, Nation, M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY 1998, pp. 5–9.
35. Kalistrat Salia, Histoire de la nation géorgienne, Nino Salia, Paris 1980, p. 11; see also Thorniké Gordadzé’s scathing criticism of this book in ‘La réforme du passé: l’effort historiographique de construction de la nation géorgienne’, Revue d’études comparatives Est-Ouest, vol. 30, no. 1, March 1999, pp. 53–80, esp. pp. 58, 63.
36. Andrew Wilson, The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation, Yale University Press 2015, pp. 21–2.
37. Livy, Ab urbe condita, Book I, chapter 2: ‘sub eodem iure solum sed etiam nomine omnes essent’.
38. S. C. M. Paine, Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and their Disputed Frontier, M. E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY 1996, p. 90.
39. Amalendu Misra, Afghanistan: The Labyrinth of Violence, Polity, Cambridge 2004, pp. 5ff.
40. A. I. Asiwaju, Partitioned Africans: Ethnic Relations across Africa’s International Boundaries, 1884–1984, C. Hurst & Co., London 1985, pp. 2ff.
41. Flora Shaw, ‘Nigeria’, The Times, 8 January 1897, p. 6 (unsigned).
42. Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, ‘Greed and Grievance in Civil War’, Oxford Economic Papers, no. 56, 2004, p. 563.
43. Charles and Barbara Jelavich, The Establishment of the Balkan National States 1804– 1920, University of Washington Press 1977, p. 66.
44. Keith Hitchins, Rumania, 1866–1947, Oxford University Press 1994, pp. 12–14.
45. Georges B. Dertilis, ‘Introduction’, in Georges B. Dertilis (ed.), Banquiers, usuriers et paysans. Réseaux de crédit et stratégies du capital en Grèce (1780–1930), La Découverte, Paris 1988, p. 25; Catherine Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, Fayard, Paris 1995, p. 149.
46. Durandin, Histoire des Roumains, p. 148.
47. Caroline Finkel, Osman’s Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923, John Murray, London 2005, p. 471.
48. Ibid, p. 486.
49. Stephen F. Jones, ‘Russian Imperial Administration and the Georgian Nobility: The Georgian Conspiracy of 1832’, The Slavonic and East European Review, vol. 65, no. 1, January 1987, pp. 54–5. In the nationalist version of Kalistrat Salia the Russian annexation of Georgia is portrayed as a unilateral initiative by the Tsar; see Salia, Histoire de la nation géorgienne, pp. 380–81.
50. Glenda Sluga, ‘Narrating Difference and Defining the Nation in Late Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth Century “Western” Europe’, European Review of History, vol. 9, no. 2, 2002, pp. 188–9.
51. Source: US Census Bureau, Internet release date: 13 September 2002.
52. http://www.census.gov/population/www/docu-mentation/twps0029/twps0029.html
53. Frederick Jackson Turner, ‘The Significance of the Frontier in American History’, in The Frontier in American History, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York 1962, p. 4.
54. John Lynch, ‘The Origins of Spanish American Independence’, in Bethell (ed.), Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. III, p. 11.
55. Paul H. Lewis, Authoritarian Regimes in Latin America: Dictators, Despots, and Tyrants, Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD 2005, p. 17 and p. 30n.
56. Nicolás Sánchez-Albornoz, ‘The Population of Latin America, 1850–1930’, in Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. IV, p. 122; Massimo Livi Bacci, The Population of Europe: A History, Blackwell, Oxford 2000, p. 8.<
br />
57. Simón Bolívar, El Libertador: Writings of Simón Bolívar, Oxford University Press 2003, p. 101.
58. Lewis, Authoritarian Regimes in Latin America, p. 17.
59. Emília Viotti Da Costa, ‘Brazil: The Age of Reform, 1870–1889’, in Bethell (ed.), The Cambridge History of Latin America, vol. V, p. 777.
60. Jean Piel, ‘The Place of the Peasantry in the National Life of Peru in the Nineteenth Century’, Past & Present, no. 46, February 1970, p. 120.
61. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, Verso, London 2006, 2nd ed., pp. 50, 53ff.
62. Henrietta Harrison, China: Inventing the Nation, Bloomsbury, London 2001.
63. Rana Mitter, A Bitter Revolution: China’s Struggle with the Modern World, Oxford University Press 2005, p. 30.
64. Amos Elon, Herzl, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London 1975, p. 23.
65. Theodor Herzl, The Jewish State, Penguin, London 2010, pp. 29–30.
66. Ibid, pp. 38, 57.
67. Ibid, p. 96.
68. Sven Rubenson, ‘Ethiopia and the Horn’, in The Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 5, From c. 1790 to 1870, ed. John E. Flint, Cambridge University Press 1976, pp. 57–8.
69. Christopher Fyfe, ‘Freed Slave Colonies in West Africa’, in ibid, p. 192.
2. The Lives of the People
1. Paolo Sorcinelli, ‘L’alimentation et la santé’, in Histoire de l’alimentation, ed. Jean-Louis Flandrin and Massimo Montanari, Fayard, Paris 1996, pp. 810–11.
2. Jean Leduc, Histoire de la France: l’enracinement de la République, 1879–1918, Hachette, Paris 1991, pp. 6–8.
3. Pierre Gourou, Les Paysans du delta tonkinois (Thèse doctorat), Les Éditions d’Art et d’Histoire, Paris 1936, pp. 306–9 and 568–9.
4. Robert J. Gordon, ‘Does the “New Economy” Measure up to the Great Inventions of the Past?’, Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 14, no. 4, Autumn 2000, pp. 49–74, esp. pp. 59–60; see also idem, The Rise and Fall of American Growth: The U.S. Standard of Living since the Civil War, Princeton University Press 2016, pp. 3–7.
5. Jean-Noël Biraben, ‘Essai sur l’évolution du nombre des hommes’, Population, vol. 34, no. 1, January–February 1979, p. 15, for data before 1950. For 1950, 1987, and 2015, see United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2015 Revision, POP/DB/WPP/Rev.2015/POP/F01-1. For 2018 see UN: births and deaths can be seen, as they happen, on this website: http://www.worldometers.info/world-population
6. Jacques Chastenet, Histoire de la Troisième République. L’enfance de la troisième, 1870–1879, Hachette, Paris 1952, pp. 260–62.
7. World Bank Data reporting UN data: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?page=3
8. Ian Gazeley and Sara Horrell, ‘Nutrition in the English Agricultural Labourer’s Household over the Course of the Long Nineteenth Century’, Economic History Review, vol. 66, no. 3, August 2013, pp. 757– 84.
9. Jerome Blum, ‘The Condition of the European Peasantry on the Eve of Emancipation’, Journal of Modern History, vol. 46, no. 3, September 1974, pp. 410–12.
10. Paul Bairoch, ‘La Suisse dans le contexte international aux XIXe et XXe siècles’, in Paul Bairoch and Martin Körner (eds), La Suisse dans l’économie mondiale, Droz, Geneva 1990, p. 104.
11. Piero Meldini, ‘A tavola e in cucina’, in Piero Melograni (ed.), La famiglia italiana dall’ottocento a oggi, Laterza, Rome-Bari 1988, p. 435.
12. William N. Beauclerk, Rural Italy: An Account of the Present Agricultural Conditions of the Kingdom , Richard Bentley & Son, London 1888, pp. 175, 107.
13. Stefano Jacini (ed.), Atti della Giunta per la inchiesta agraria e sulle condizioni della classe agricola, vol. XI, Tomo 1, Province di Roma e Grosseto, Forzani, Rome 1884, pp. 787–8, p. 793: https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=Oi0oAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&output=reader&authuser=0&hl=en&pg=GBS.PA793
14. E. J. T. Collins, ‘Why Wheat? Choice of Food Grains in Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 22, no. 1, 1993, p. 9.
15. Giovanni Montroni, La società italiana dall’unificazione alla Grande Guerra, Laterza, Rome-Bari 2002, p. 167.
16. Costantino Felice, Il disagio di vivere. Il cibo, la casa, le malattie in Abruzzo e Molise dall’Unità al secondo dopoguerra, Franco Angeli, Milan 1990, p. 49.
17. Agopik Manoukian, ‘La famiglia dei contadini’, in Piero Melograni (ed.), La famiglia italiana dall’ottocento a oggi, Laterza, Rome-Bari, 1988, p. 17.
18. Carlo Levi, Cristo si è fermato a Eboli, Einaudi, Turin 1946, p. 129.
19. Vera Zamagni, Dalla periferia al centro. La seconda rinascita economica dell’Italia 1861–1981, Il Mulino, Bologna 1990, p. 249.
20. Amelia Paparazzo, I subalterni calabresi tra rimpianto e trasgressione. La Calabria dal brigantaggio post-unitario all’età giolittiana, Franco Angeli, Milan 1984, pp. 79ff.
21. Ibid, p. 80.
22. Mar-tine Segalen, ‘Material Conditions of Family Life’, in David Kertzer and Marzio Barbagli (eds), Family Life in the Long Nineteenth Century, 1789– 1914, Yale University Press 2002, pp. 20–22.
23. Collins, ‘Why Wheat?’, p. 14.
24. Roberto Finzi, ‘Sazia assai ma dà poco fiato’. Il mais nell’economia e nella vita rurale italiane. Secoli XVI–XX, CLUEB, Bologna 2009, pp. 62, 95.
25. Arlette Mouret, ‘La légende des 150,000 décès tuberculeux par an’, Annales de démographie historique, 1996, p. 63.
26. Patrice Bourdelais, ‘Épi-démies et population: bilan et perspectives de recherches’, in ibid, 1997, p. 17.
27. Georg Simmel, ‘The Metropolis and Mental Life’ (originally ‘Die Grossstädte und das Geistesleben’, in Jahrbuch der Gehestiftung, IX, Dresden 1903), in Simmel on Culture, ed. David Frisby and Mike Featherstone, Sage, London 1997, pp. 184–5.
28. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Émile ou de l’éducation, vol. 2, Werdet et Lequien fils, Paris 1826, p. 267.
29. Andrew Lees, ‘Critics of Urban Society in Germany, 1854–1914’, Journal of the History of Ideas, vol. 40, no. 1, January–March 1979, pp. 62–3.
30. Ibid, pp. 70, 73.
31. Eugene Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870– 1914, Stanford University Press 1976, p. 286.
32. Robert Musil, The Man Without Qualities, vol. 1 (Chapter 76), Vintage Books, New York 1996, p. 349.
33. Fernand Braudel, Civilisation matérielle, économie et capitalisme, XVe–XVIIIe siècle, vol. 1: Les structures du quotidien, p. 431.
34. Paul Bairoch, Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes, Harvester, New York and London 1993, pp. 102–8.
35. Thomas Stanley Fedor, Patterns of Urban Growth in the Russian Empire during the Nineteenth Century, University of Chicago, Department of Geography, Research Paper no. 163, 1975, p. 24.
36. Ibid, p. 29.
37. Stephen Velychenko, ‘Empire Loyalism and Minority Nationalism in Great Britain and Imperial Russia, 1707 to 1914: Institutions, Law, and Nationality in Scotland and Ukraine’, Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 39, no. 3, July 1997, p. 415.
38. Hippolyte Desprez, ‘La Moldo-Valachie et le mouvement roumain’, Revue des deux mondes, vol. 21, 1848, pp. 109–10.
39. Andrew C. Janos, ‘Modernization and Decay in Historical Perspective: The Case of Romania’, in Kenneth Jowitt (ed.), Social Change in Romania, 1860–1940: A Debate on Development in a European Nation, University of California Press 1978, p. 76.
40. Charles C. Arion, La situation économique et sociale du paysan en Roumanie, V. Giard & E. Brière, Paris 1895, p. 36 (for medical data), pp. 84–5: https://archive.org/stream/lasituationcono00ariogoog#page/n13/mode/2up
41. Tertius Chandler, Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth, St David’s University Press 1987, pp. 460–63; Lis and Soly, Worthy Efforts, p. 56.
42. Paul Bairoch, ‘Urbanization and the Economy in Preindustrial Societies: The Findings of Two Decad
es of Research’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 18, no. 2, Fall 1989, p. 260.
43. Caroline Dodds Pennock, ‘Mass Murder or Religious Homicide? Rethinking Human Sacrifice and Interpersonal Violence in Aztec Society’, Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung, vol. 37, no. 3, 2012, p. 282.
44. Jürgen Osterhammel, The Transformation of the World: A Global History of the Nineteenth Century, Princeton University Press 2014, p. 251. All such statistics should be taken with caution; Pomeranz and Topik, in The World that Trade Created, p. 82, say that Edo (Tokyo) was ‘probably’ the largest city in the eighteenth century.
45. Bairoch, ‘Urbanization and the Economy in Preindustrial Societies’, p. 244.
46. Leslie Page Moch, Moving Europeans: Migration in Western Europe since 1650, Indiana University Press 2003, p. 115.
47. Philippe Pinchemel, Structures sociales et dépopulation rurale dans les campagnes picardes de 1836 à 1936, Armand Colin, Paris 1957, p. 208; see also Moch, Moving Europeans, p. 128.
48. Herbert S. Klein, A Population History of the United States, Cambridge University Press 2004, pp. 119, 127.
49. Paul Bairoch, ‘Niveaux de développements économique de 1810 à 1910’, Annales, vol. 20, no. 6, November–December 1965, p. 1,109.
50. Robert A. Margo, ‘The Labor Force in Nineteenth Century’, in Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman (eds), The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, vol. 2: The Long Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press 2000, pp. 215–16, and Klein, A Population History of the United States, p. 123.
51. Klein, A Population History of the United States, p. 129, and Michael R. Haines, ‘The Population of the United States, 1790–1920’, in Engerman and Gallman (eds), The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, vol. 2, p. 199.
52. Massimo Livi-Bacci, L’immigrazione e l’assimilazione degli italiani negli Stati Uniti, Giuffrè, Milan 1961, pp. 34–5.
53. Merle Curti and Kendall Birr, ‘The Immigrant and the American Image in Europe, 1860–1914’, Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 37, no. 2, September 1950, p. 214.
54. Max Paul Friedman, ‘Beyond “Voting with their Feet”: Toward a Conceptual History of “America” in European Migrant Sending Communities, 1860s to 1914’, Journal of Social History, vol. 40, no. 3, Spring 2007, pp. 558–9.
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