6. Osterhammel, The Transformation of the World, p. 212.
7. Mokyr, The Enlightened Economy, pp. 99, 106–7.
8. F. M. L. Thompson, The Rise of Respectable Society: A Social History of Victorian Britain, 1830–1900, Harvard University Press 1988, p. 29.
9. See figures in Phyllis Deane and W. A. Cole, British Economic Growth, 1688–1959: Trends and Structure, Cambridge University Press 1967, p. 143.
10. Thompson, The Rise of Respectable Society, p. 43.
11. Supple, ‘The State and the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1914’, p. 302.
12. Jean-Michel Gaillard and André Lespagnol, Les mutations économiques et sociales au XIXe siècle (1780–1880), Nathan, Paris 1984, p. 77.
13. Alan Birch, The Economic History of the British Iron and Steel Industry, 1784–1879, Routledge, London 2005 (first published 1967), p. 313.
14. Richard Tames, Economy and Society in Nineteenth Century Britain, Routledge, London 2013, p. 53. For a list of present-day steel-producing countries see: http://www.worldsteel.org
15. William H. Phillips, ‘The Economic Performance of Late Victorian Britain: Traditional Historians and Growth’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 18, no. 2, Fall 1989, p. 393, quoting D. N. McCloskey, Economic Maturity and Entrepreneurial Decline: British Iron and Steel, 1870–1913, Harvard University Press 1973, Chapter 5.
16. Bairoch, ‘International Industrialization Levels from 1750 to 1980’, pp. 330–31.
17. Patrick O’Brien and Caglar Keyder, ‘Les voies de passage vers la société industrielle en Grande-Bretagne et en France (1780–1914)’, Annales, vol. 34, no. 6, November–December 1979, pp. 1,287–8.
18. Gilles Postel-Vinay, ‘L’agriculture dans l’économie française. Crises et réinsertion’, in Maurice Lévy-Leboyer and Jean-Claude Casanova (eds), Entre l’état et le marché. L’économie française des années 1880 à nos jours, Gallimard, Paris 1991, p. 73.
19. Lévy-Leboyer and Bourguignon, L’économie française au XIXe siècle, pp. 268–9.
20. Leduc, Histoire de la France, p. 15.
21. Jean-Charles Asselain, ‘La stagnation économique’, in Lévy-Leboyer and Casanova (eds), Entre l’état et le marché, p. 220.
22. World Bank International Comparison Programme: http://web.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=60002244&theSitePK=270065&contentMDK=23562337&noSURL=Y&piPK=62002388
23. World Bank International Comparison Programme: http://web.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=60002244&theSitePK=270065&contentMDK=23562337&noSURL=Y&piPK=62002388
24. International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, April 2014: http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/01/weodata/index.aspx; World Bank: ‘GDP per capita, PPP (current international $)’, World Development Indicators database, updated 1 July 2014.
25. Berend and Ránki, The European Periphery and Industrialization, 1780–1914, pp. 31–3.
26. Gunnar Fridlizius, ‘Sweden’s Exports, 1850–1960: A Study in Perspective’, Economy and History, vol. 6, 1963, p. 3.
27. Ibid, pp. 12, 21.
28. Ivan T. Berend, An Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe, Cambridge University Press 2006, pp. 28–30.
29. Berend and Ránki, The European Periphery and Industrialization, 1780–1914, p. 64.
30. Sandberg, ‘The Case of the Impoverished Sophisticate: Human Capital and Swedish Economic Growth before World War I’, pp. 227, 230, 232.
31. Jens Möller, ‘Towards Agrarian Capitalism: The Case of Southern Sweden during the 19th Century’, Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography, vol. 72, no. 2/3, 1990, pp. 60ff.
32. Werner Sombart, The Quintessence of Capitalism: A Study of the History and Psychology of the Modern Business Man, Fisher Unwin, London 1915, pp. 141, 143. This is the translation of his 1913 book Der Bourgeois.
33. Sombart, The Quintessence of Capitalism, pp. 150–51.
34. Donald Winch, Riches and Poverty: An Intellectual History of Political Economy in Britain, 1750–1834, Cambridge University Press 1996, p. 165.
35. Austin Harrison, England & Germany: Republished from ‘The Observer’, Macmillan, London 1907, p. 91: http://archive.org/stream/englandandgerman00harruoft#page/n5/mode/2up
36. Ibid, pp. 80–81.
37. Ibid, p. 93.
38. Ernest Edwin Williams, ‘Made in Germany’, Heinemann, London 1896, pp. 162–3.
39. Arthur Shadwell, Industrial Efficiency: A Comparative Study of Industrial Life in England, Germany and America, vol. 2, Longmans, Green, and Co., London 1906, pp. 453–4.
40. Ibid, pp. 45–56.
41. Ibid, p. 456.
42. Ibid, p. 457.
43. Hubert Kiesewetter, ‘Competition for Wealth and Power: The Growing Rivalry between Industrial Britain and Industrial Germany 1815–1914’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 20, no. 2, Fall 1991, p. 292.
44. Data for decadence in Malcolm Bull, ‘The Decline of Decadence’, New Left Review, July–August 2015, no. 94, pp. 83–6; the data for ‘decline’ in Google Books Ngram Viewer.
45. Baglioni, L’ideologia della borghesia industriale, p. 135.
46. Giovanni Luigi Fontana, ‘Imprenditori, imprese e territorio dalla prima alla seconda rivoluzione industriale’ in L’industria vicentina dal medioevo a oggi, ed. Giovanni Luigi Fontana, Centro Studi sull’impresa, Vicenza 2004, pp. 365–7.
47. As he acknowledges himself, not realizing this invalidates his thesis. See Luigi Einaudi, ‘La politica economica delle classi operaie italiane nel momento presente’, in Luigi Einaudi, Cronache economiche e politiche di un trentennio, vol. 1: 1893–1902, Einaudi, Turin 1959, p. 164, originally in Critica sociale of 1 July 1899.
48. Ibid, pp. 165–9.
49. Zamagni, Dalla periferia al centro, pp. 207–9, see table on p. 207.
50. Ibid, p. 216.
51. Ilaria Barzaghi, Milano 1881: tanto lusso e tanta folla, Silvana, Milan 2009, pp. 185–6.
52. Ana Bela Nunes, Eugénia Mata, and Nuno Valério, ‘Portuguese Economic Growth, 1833–1985’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 18, no. 2, Fall 1989, p. 301.
53. Pedro Lains, L’économie portugaise au XIXe siècle. Croissance économique et commerce extérieur, 1851–1913, L’Harmattan, Paris 1999, p. 48.
54. Stanley G. Payne, A History of Spain and Portugal, vol. 2: Eighteenth Century to Franco, University of Wisconsin Press 1973, p. 557.
55. Sakari Heikkinen and Riitta Hjerppe, ‘The Growth of Finnish Industry in 1860–1913: Causes and Linkages’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1987, pp. 227–9.
56. Hjerppe, The Finnish Economy, 1860–1985, pp. 51, 62–3.
57. David Moon, ‘Peasant Migration and the Settlement of Russia’s Frontiers, 1550–1897’, Historical Journal, vol. 40, no. 4, December 1997, p. 893.
58. Berend and Ránki, The European Periphery and Industrialization, 1780–1914, p. 29.
59. Karl Marx, Preface to the first German edition, Capital, vol. 1, Progress Publishers, Moscow 1965, p. 9.
60. Adam Smith, Lectures on Jurisprudence, ed. R. L. Meek, D. D. Raphael, and P. G. Stein, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1978, p. 14.
61. Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, pp. 310–11.
62. See these classic twentieth-century works: Karl Polanyi, The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time (1944), Beacon Press, Boston, MA 2002; Alexander Gerschenkron, Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective, Belknap Press, Cambridge, MA 1962; and Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, Beacon Press, Boston, MA 1966.
63. Lucidly summarized by Jonathan M. Wiener in his ‘Review of Reviews: Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy’, in History and Theory, vol. 15, no. 2, May 1976, pp. 146–75.
64. Patrick O’Brien, ‘Do We Have a Typology for the Study of European Industrialization in the XIXth Century?’, Journal of European Eco
nomic History, vol. 15, no. 2, Fall 1986, p. 323.
65. Colin Leys, The Rise and Fall of Development Theory, James Currey, London 1996, p. 49.
66. Luo Guanzhong, Three Kingdoms: A Historical Novel, trans. Moss Roberts, University of California Press 1991, p. 5.
67. Charles Kindleberger, ‘Review of The Economy of Turkey; The Economic Development of Guatemala; Report on Cuba’, Review of Economics and Statistics, vol. 34, no. 4, November 1952, p. 391, cited in Arrighi, Smith in Beijing, pp. 42–3.
68. M. M. Postan, ‘L’expérience de l’industrialisation européenne et les problèmes actuels des pays sous-développés’, in L’industrialisation en Europe au XIXe siècle, Colloque international du CNRS, Lyon 1970, Éditions du CNRS, Paris 1972, p. 48.
69. O’Brien and Keyder, ‘Les voies de passage vers la société industrielle en Grande-Bretagne et en France (1780– 1914)’, p. 1,285.
70. Louis Bergeron (ed.), Les capitalistes en France (1780–1914), Gallimard, Paris 1978, p. 125.
71. Rondo Cameron, ‘France, 1800–1870’, in Rondo Cameron, with Olga Crisp et al., Banking in the Early Stages of Industrialization, Oxford University Press 1967, pp. 100–128. But this is hotly disputed by Alain Plessis in his ‘Le “retard français”: la faute à la banque? Banques locales, succursales de la Banque de France et financement de l’économie sous le Second Empire’, in Patrick Fridenson and André Straus (eds), Le capitalisme français 19e–20e siècle. Blocages et dynamismes d’une croissance, Paris, Fayard 1987, pp. 199–210.
72. Lévy-Leboyer and Bourguignon, L’économie française au XIXe siècle, p. 8.
73. Jean Bouvier, ‘Libres propos autour d’une démarche révisionniste’, in Fridenson and Straus, Le capitalisme français 19e–20e siècle, pp. 13–15.
74. Maurice Lévy-Leboyer, ‘La croissance économique en France au XIXe siècle’, Annales, vol. 23, no. 4, July–August 1968, p. 801.
75. Maurice Lévy-Leboyer, ‘La décélération de l’économie française dans la seconde moitié du XIXe siècle’, Revue d’histoire économique et sociale, vol. 49, no. 4, 1971, p. 486.
76. Patrick Verley, Nouvelle histoire économique de la France contemporaine, vol. 2: L’industrialisation 1830–1914, La Découverte, Paris 2002, p. 7.
77. Hewitson, ‘German Public Opinion and the Question of Industrial Modernity’, p. 48.
78. Ibid, pp. 49–52.
79. Leslie Hannah, ‘Logistics, Market Size, and Giant Plants in the Early Twentieth Century: A Global View’, Journal of Economic History, vol. 68, no. 1, March 2008, pp. 60–62.
80. Jean Garrigues, ‘Un autre modèle pour la République: l’influence des Britanniques sur les libéraux français (1870–1880)’, in Sylvie Aprile and Fabrice Bensimon (eds), La France et l’Angleterre au XIXe siècle: échanges, représentations, comparaisons, Creaphis éditions, Paris 2006, p. 182; see also Paul Challemel-Lacour’s article ‘Hommes d’état en Angleterre: William Ewart Gladstone’, Revue des deux mondes, 1 July 1870, pp. 44–92; the citation is on p. 50.
81. Garrigues, ‘Un autre modèle pour la République’, pp. 182–7.
82. Bertrand Joly, ‘Le parti royaliste et l’affaire Dreyfus (1898–1900)’, Revue historique, no. 546, April–June 1983, pp. 311–64.
83. Michael G. Mulhall, The Progress of the World in Arts, Agriculture, Commerce, Manufactures, Instruction, Railways, and Public Wealth since the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century, Edward Stanford, London 1880, pp. 140–42.
84. Michael G. Mulhall, Industries and Wealth of Nations, Longmans, Green, and Co., London 1896, Table XIX for figures on trade and p. 391 for figures on earnings.
85. Germaine de Staël, Considérations sur les principaux événements de la Révolution française, depuis son origine jusques et compris le 8 juillet 1815, vol. 3, J.-A. Latour, Liège 1818, pp. 185, 230–2; see also Biancamaria Fontana, Germaine de Staël: A Political Portrait, Princeton University Press 2016, p. 229.
86. Cited in Laurent Theis, Guizot. La traversée d’un siècle, CNRS Éditions, Paris 2014, p. 178. On Guizot’s Anglophilia see the whole of Chapter IX: http://www.guizot.com/wp-content/uploads/Les-Guizot-et-l-Angleterre.pdf
87. James Thompson, ‘“A Nearly Related People”: German Views of the British Labour Market, 1870–1900’, in Winch and O’Brien (eds), The Political Economy of British Historical Experience, pp. 95–8.
88. List, National System of Political Economy, pp. 437–8.
89. Barthélemy Faujas-Saint-Fond, Voyage en Angleterre, en Écosse et aux Îles Hébrides, H. J. Jansen, Paris 1797, vol. 1, pp. 113–14.
90. Ibid., pp. 58, 67–8, 44, 56.
91. Giorgio Mori, ‘The Genesis of Italian Industrialization’, Journal of European Economic History, vol. 4, no. 1, Spring 1975, pp. 91–2.
92. Giuseppe Pecchio, Osservazioni semi-serie di un esule sull’Inghilterra, G. Ruggia & Co., Lugano 1831, pp. 103, 124, 223.
93. Domenico Zanichelli, Studi politici e storici, Zanichelli, Bologna 1893, p. 15.
94. Ibid, p. 121.
95. Berend and Ránki, The European Periphery and Industrialization, 1780–1914, p. 21.
96. Ibid, p. 25.
97. Janos, East Central Europe in the Modern World, pp. 346–8, 353.
98. Katus, ‘Economic Growth in Hungary during the Age of Dualism’, pp. 55–6.
99. Ibid, pp. 57–8.
100. William O. McCagg Jr., ‘Hungary’s “Feudalized” Bourgeoisie’, Journal of Modern History, vol. 44, no. 1, March 1972, p. 71.
101. Janos, The Politics of Backwardness in Hungary, pp. 120–21.
102. Cited in ibid, pp. 128–9.
103. Katus, ‘Economic Growth in Hungary during the Age of Dualism’, pp. 69–72.
104. Ibid, pp. 78–80.
105. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, p. 760.
106. Anatole Leroy-Beaulieu, L’empire des Tsars et les Russes, Laffont, Paris 1990, p. 279 (1st ed. 1881; the edition I am using is a reprint of the 4th ed. of 1897–8).
107. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto, Penguin, London 2002, pp. 223–4.
108. F. M. L. Thomson, ‘Changing Perceptions of Land Tenures in Britain, 1750–1914’, in Winch and O’Brien (eds), The Political Economy of British Historical Experience, 1688–1914, pp. 133– 4.
109. Bairoch, ‘Niveaux de développement économique de 1810 à 1910’, p. 1,096.
110. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, The German Ideology, International Publishers, New York 1968, p. 38.
111. Kant ‘Perpetual Peace’, pp. 106–7.
112. Theodore S. Hamerow, The Birth of a New Europe, University of North Carolina Press 1983, p. 19, citing Franz Xaver von Neumann-Spallart, Uebersichten der Weltwirtschaft: Jahrgang 1883–84, Stuttgart 1887, p. 83.
113. William Cunningham, ‘Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism in Economics’, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, vol. 54, no. 4, December 1891, pp. 649–50; noted in Frank Trentmann, ‘National Identity and Consumer Politics: Free Trade and Tariff Reform’, in Donald Winch and Patrick O’Brien (eds), The Political Economy of British Historical Experience, 1688–1914, Oxford University Press 2002, p. 215.
114. Cunningham, ‘Nationalism and Cosmopolitanism in Economics’, p. 651.
115. Hervé, L’internationalisme, pp. 63–4.
116. Cited in René Girault, ‘Place et rôle des échanges extérieurs’, in Braudel and Labrousse (eds), Histoire économique et sociale de la France, Tome IV, vol. 1, p. 223.
117. Giovanni Dalla Vecchia, ‘The Revolt in Italy’, Contemporary Review, vol. 74, July 1898, p. 113.
118. Booth, Life and Labour of the People in London, p. 191.
119. C. A. Bayly, The Birth of the Modern World, 1780–1914, Blackwell, Oxford 2004, p. 172.
120. Arno J. Mayer, ‘The Lower Middle Class as Historical Problem’, Journal of Modern History, vol. 47, no. 3. September 1975, p. 419.
121. François Crouzet, L’économie de la Grande-Bretagne Victorienne, Société d’édition d’enseignement supérieur, Pa
ris 1978, pp. 332–5.
122. Angus Maddison figures adjusted in international Geary–Khamis dollars (purchasing power parity), see www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical…/horizontal-file_02-2010.xls (The Groningen Growth and Development Centre).
123. See Robert Brenner, ‘Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe’, Past & Present, no. 70, February 1976, pp. 30–75, along with contributions to the debate sparked by the original article in T. H. Aston and C. H. E. Philpin (eds), The Brenner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe, Cambridge University Press 1985.
124. William Stanley Jevons, The Coal Question: An Inquiry Concerning the Progress of the Nation, and the Probable Exhaustion of our Coal-Mines, Macmillan, London 1866 (1st ed. 1865), p. 371.
125. William Gladstone, ‘Financial Statement’, 3 May 1866, House of Commons: http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1866/may/03/the-financial-statement pp. 399–400.
126. Stefan Collini, ‘The Idea of “Character” in Victorian Political Thought’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, vol. 35, 1985, p. 46.
127. Brenner, ‘Economic Backwardness in Eastern Europe in Light of Developments in the West’, pp. 15–52; see also Robert Brenner, ‘The Agrarian Roots of European Capitalism’, in The Brenner Debate, ed. Aston and Philpin; and Robert Brenner, ‘The Origins of Capitalism: A Critique of Neo-Smithian Marxism’, New Left Review, no. 104, July–August 1977.
128. Rodney H. Hilton, ‘Introduction’, in Aston and Philpin (eds), The Brenner Debate, p. 5.
129. Samuel Clark, ‘Nobility, Bourgeoisie and the Industrial Revolution in Belgium’, Past & Present, no. 105, November 1984, p. 167.
8. Russia: The Reluctant Laggard
1. Alexander Pushkin, ‘To Chaadaev’, trans. A. N. Matyatina: http://zhurnal.lib.ru/m/matjatina_a_n/tochaadaevaspushkin.shtml
2. Mikhail Lermontov, Major Poetical Works, ed. and trans. Anatoly Liberman, Croom Helm, London 1983, p. 47.
3. Hans Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, 1881–1917, Longman, London and New York 1983, p. 100.
4. Orlando Figes, Crimea: The Last Crusade, Allen Lane, London 2010, pp. 484–8.
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