III
On the tactics of Belisarius, Witigis and Totila, see E. A. Thompson: Romans and Barbarians: The Decline of the Western Empire (1982). On clippings, the logothete and other instances of Byzantine rapacity see Llewellyn. On bubonic plague, see Lester K. Little (ed.), Plague and the End of Antiquity, the Pandemic of 541–750 (2008). On Justianian’s falling out with Pope Vigilius over the Three Chapters see Richards. On the demise of the Ostrogoths see Peter Heather, The Goths. For the demise of bathing, see Ward-Perkins and Christie. See both and also Krautheimer for the demise of Roman institutions and the preservation of classical buildings as churches. On the demise of the Senate and of Rome’s old aristocracy, see T. S. Brown, Gentlemen and Officers: Imperial Administration and Aristocratic Power in Byzantine Italy, AD 554–800.
Chapter Four
I
H. E. J. Cowdrey, Pope Gregory VII 1073–1085 (1998) offers a detailed if uncritical account of his reign. A full account of his nemesis can be found in I. S. Robinson’s Henry IV of Germany, 1056–1106 (1999). For the rise of Robert Guiscard and the Normans in southern Italy see G. A. Loud, The Age of Robert Guiscard: Southern Italy and the Norman Conquest (2000); G. A. Loud, ‘Conquerors and Churchmen in Norman Italy’ in Variorum Collected Studies series, July 1999, and also Kenneth Baxter Woolf’s Making History: The Normans and their Historians in the Eleventh Century (1995). The fullest original narrative is that of Geoffrey of Malaterra, The Deeds of Count Roger, trans. Kenneth Baxter Woolf (2005).
II
Richard Krautheimer, Rome, Profile of a City, 312–1308 (1980) once again is a classic on this period. For a more up-to-date account that covers every facet of Rome’s topography, population, politics, society, economy and rituals, and from which many details in this chapter are drawn, see Chris Wickham, Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900–1150 (2015). It is Wickham who compares the Church reformers with early Russian revolutionaries. For archaeological evidence concerning Rome’s eighth-century revival see Neil Christie, From Constantine to Charlemagne, an Archaeological History of Italy AD 300–800 (2006). Details on the Major Litany procession are from Joseph Dyer, ‘Roman Processions of the Major Litany (litanae maiores) from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries’ in Roma Felix – Formation and Reflections of Medieval Rome, ed. Éamonn Ó Carragáin and Carol Neuman de Vegvar (2008).
Debra Birch, Pilgrimage to Rome in the Middle Ages – Continuity and Change (2000) offers a detailed and lively account of the subject. For some of medieval Romans’ imaginative tales concerning the city’s ruins see the twelfth-century description of the city, Mirabilia Urbis Roma (The Marvels of Rome) which, among many claims, reports that Noah landed his ark on the Gianicolo Hill to re-found the human race. The likely cause of the collapse of half of the Colosseum’s outer wall is from David Karmon’s The Ruin of the Eternal City: Antiquity and Preservation in Renaissance Rome (2011). For Rome in the centuries prior to the Norman sack see both Krautheimer and Peter Llewellyn’s Rome in the Dark Ages (1971).
The question of which aqueducts functioned when is discussed in Bryan Ward-Perkins’ From Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages, Urban Public Building in Northern and Central Italy, AD 300–850 (Oxford Historical Monographs) (1984) and by Katherine Wentworth Rinne in The Waters of Rome: Aqueducts, Fountains and the Birth of the Baroque City (2010). For Romans’ material possessions see Patricia Skinner, ‘Material Life’ in David Abulafia (ed.), Italy in the Central Middle Ages 1000–1300 (2004). For changes in cuisine and ingredients see Fabio Parasecoli, Al Dente: a History of Food in Italy (2014). For health and medicine see Patricia Skinner, Health and Medicine in early Mediaeval Southern Italy (1996) and also Robert Sallares, Malaria and Rome: A History of Malaria in Ancient Italy (2002). Rome’s Jewish community and the observations of Benjamin Tudela are examined by Marie-Thérèse Champagne and Ra’anan S. Boustan, ‘Walking in the Shadows of the Past: The Jewish Experience of Rome in the Twelfth century’ in Louis I. Hamilton (ed.), Rome Re-Imagined: Twelfth-century Jews, Christians and Muslims Encounter the Eternal City (2011). For women’s lives in this period see Patricia Skinner, Women in Mediaeval Italy 500–1200 (2001). Anxious (Genoese) fathers worried about inheritance are examined by Steven Epstein in David Abulafia (ed.), The Family in Italy in the Central Middle Ages 1000–1300 (2004).
III
For eleventh-century warfare see: J. F. Verbruggen, The Art of Warfare in Western Europe during the Middle Ages (1997) and Philippe Contamine, War in the Middle Ages, trans. Michael Jones (1984). The most detailed chronology of the complex events of 1081–84 remains that of Ferdinand Gregovius: A History of Mediaeval Rome, Vol. 4, Part 1, trans. Annie Hamilton (1905). For an analysis of Guiscard’s sack of Rome see Louis I. Hamilton’s acute and highly enjoyable ‘Memory, Symbol and Arson: Was Rome sacked in 1084?’ in Speculum XXVIII, April 2003, which my account closely follows. For details on the 1300 Jubilee and Rome’s decline during the Avignon years see Richard Krautheimer, Rome, Profile of a City, 312–1308 (1980). On how Romans’ desire to preserve their classical past helped inspire their drive for a civic government independent of the popes see David Karmon, The Ruins of the Eternal City: Antiquity and Preservation in Renaissance Rome (2011).
Chapter Five
I
For the conclave of 1523 see Herbert M. Vaughan, The Medici Popes (1908) and Dr Ludwig Pastor, A History of the Popes, Volume IX, Adrian VI and Clement VII, trans. Ralph Francis Kerr (1923). The best account of the events leading up to the 1527 sack, the sack itself and its aftermath, on which this chapter has drawn many details, is Judith Hook’s The Sack of Rome (1972). André Chastell, The Sack of Rome, 1527 (1983) examines the event from a cultural and artistic angle. Eric Russell Chamberlin, The Sack of Rome (1979) offers a highly entertaining if less reliable narrative. On Clement VII and Michelangelo see William E. Wallace, ‘Clement VII and Michelangelo: An Anatomy of Patronage’, and for Clement’s musical talents see Richard Sherr, ‘Clement VII and the Golden Age of the Papal Choir’, both in Kenneth Gouwens and Sheryl E. Reiss (eds), The Pontificate of Clement VII: History, Politics, Culture (2005). On Leo X’s jailing of five cardinals see Kate Howe, “The Political Crime of Conspiracy in Fifteenth and Sixteenth Century Rome’ in Trevor Dean and K. J. P. Howe (eds), Crime, Society and the Law in Renaissance Italy (1994). On the causes of the duke of Urbino’s feud with the Medici and for his role in these events see Cecil H. Clough, ‘Clement VII and Francesco Maria della Rovere, Duke of Urbino’ in Kenneth Gouwens and Sheryl E. Reiss (eds), The Pontificate of Clement VII: History, Politics, Culture (2005). On Renaissance warfare in Italy see F. L. Taylor The Art of War in Italy 1494–1529 (1921). On the character and rise of Charles V see William Maltby, The Reign of Charles V (2002).
II
For a full and lively account of all aspects of Renaissance Rome, including its topography, buildings and population, its government, artists, popes and prostitutes see Peter Partner, Renaissance Rome: A Portrait of a Society (1979) from which many details in this chapter are drawn. For further details, including an account of papal ceremonial and the humanist rediscovery of the city’s classical past see Charles L. Stinger, The Renaissance in Rome (1998). For the role of individual families see Anthony Majanlahti, The Families Who Made Rome, a History and a Guide (2006). On Rome’s Jewish community see Attilio Milano, Il Ghetto di Roma (1988). On Rome’s topography, medieval fortress towers, churches, bell towers, houses and the conservatism of Rome’s church decoration see Richard Krautheimer, Rome, Profile of a City, 312–1308 (1980). On Renaissance palaces see Elizabeth S. Cohen and Thomas V. Cohen, Daily Life in Renaissance Italy (2001).
On the 1450 pilgrim disaster, the bridge and road buildings that ensued, and also Renaissance city churches see Loren Partridge, The Renaissance in Rome (1996) and also David Karmon, The Ruins of the Eternal City: Antiquity and Preservation in Renaissance Rome (2011). On the Sistine Chapel see Loren Partridge, Michelangelo: The Sistine Chapel Ceiling, Rome (1996). On the origins of the papac
y’s office selling and other financial irregularities see Elisabeth G. Gleason, Gasparo Contarini: Venice, Rome and Reform (1993). On Lucrezia Borgia see Katherine McIver, Wives, Widows, Mistresses and Nuns in early Modern Italy: Making the Invisible Visible through Art and Patronage (2012). On Pasquino feeling insulted by being called a cardinal, and the note left on the door of Adrian VI’s doctor’s door, see Partner.
On Romans’ use of Tiber water and Clement VII’s fondness of it, see Katherine Wentworth Rinne, The Waters of Rome: Aqueducts, Fountains and the Birth of the Baroque City (2010). On medicine and the French Disease see Roger French and Jon Arrizabalaga, ‘Coping with the French Disease: University Practitioners’ Strategies and Tactics in the Transition from the Fifteenth to the Sixteenth Centuries’ in Roger Kenneth French, Jon Arrizabalaga and Andrew Cunningham (eds), Medicine from the Black Death to the French Disease (1998).
On all aspects of everyday Renaissance Italian life from crime to cleanliness to courtesans with circular beds, see Elizabeth S. Cohen and Thomas V. Cohen, Daily Life in Renaissance Italy (2001) from which many details in this chapter have been drawn. For a fascinating glimpse of Renaissance Rome underworld life as seen through contemporary transcripts of investigative interrogations, see Thomas V. Cohen and Elizabeth S. Cohen, Words and Deeds in Renaissance Rome (1993). On Renaissance Rome’s jails see Giuseppe Adinolfi, Storia di Regina Coeli e delle carcere di Roma (1998).
On Rome’s plague of stone-throwing boys and also the tradition of Roman youths trying to impress girls by bull-baiting see Robert C. Davis, ‘The Geography of Gender in the Renaissance’ in Judith C. Brown and Robert C. Davis (eds), Gender and Society in Renaissance Italy (1998). On women’s inheritance and dowries see Samuel K. Cohn, Jr, Women in the Streets: Essays on Sex and Power in Renaissance Italy (1996); Christiane Klapisch-Zuber, Women, Family and Ritual in Renaissance Italy (1985) and Trevor Dean and K. P. J. Lowe (eds), Marriage in Italy 1300–1650 (1998).
On Roman food and cuisine and Bartolomeo Scappi’s feast see Katherine A. McIver, Cooking and Eating in Renaissance Italy: From Kitchen to Table (2014); Fabio Parasecoli, Al Dente: A History of Food in Italy (2014); Alberto Capatti and Massimo Montanari, Italian Cuisine: A Cultural History, trans. Aine O’Healy (2003) and also Elizabeth S. Cohen and Thomas V. Cohen. On humanists in Rome see John F. Amico, Renaissance Humanism in Papal Rome (1983). All details on the humanist Pierio Valeriano are drawn from Julia Haig Gaisser’s fascinating article, ‘Seeking Patronage under the Medici Popes: A Tale of Two Humanists’ in Kenneth Gouwens and Sheryl E. Reiss (eds), The Pontificate of Clement VII: History, Politics, Culture (2005). On the fate of Rome’s classical remains see David Karmon, The Ruins of the Eternal City: Antiquity and Preservation in Renaissance Rome (2011).
III
As indicated, primary sources on the sack of Rome quoted include I Diarii di Marino Sanuto (1902) (my translations) also Benvenuto Cellini, The Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini, trans. George Anthony Bull (1956) and Luigi Guicciardini, The Sack of Rome, trans. James Harvey McGregor (1993). Details gleaned from legal documents before, during and at the end of the sacking are all drawn from Anna Esposito and Vaquero Piniero’s fascinating article, ‘Rome during the Sack: Chronicles and Testimonies from an Occupied City’ in Kenneth Gouwens and Sheryl E. Reiss (eds), The Pontificate of Clement VI: History, Politics, Culture I (2005). On England’s missions to gain Clement VII’s agreement to Henry VIII’s divorce, including the strange proposal that Henry should take two wives, and also Francesco Gonzaga’s description of Rome after the sack, see Catherine Fletcher, Our Man in Rome: Henry VIII and his Italian Ambassador (2012). On Clement VII’s bounce back from disaster, see Barbara McClung Hallman, ‘The “Disastrous” Pontificate of Clement VII: Disastrous for Giulio de’ Medici?’ in Kenneth Gouwens and Sheryl E. Reiss (eds), The Pontificate of Clement VII: History, Politics, Culture (2005). On the 1530 and 1557 floods see Katherine Wentworth Rinne (above). On preparations for Charles V’s 1535 visit see David Karmon, The Ruins of the Eternal City: Antiquity and Preservation in Renaissance Rome (2011). On the sinister career of Cardinal Carafa/Pope Paul IV see Partner.
Chapter Six
I
For Pius IX’s flight from Rome see Owen Chadwick, A History of the Popes 1830–1914 (1998) and John Francis Maguire, Rome: Its Rulers and its Institutions (1858). On France’s Revolutionary and Napoleonic occupations of Rome see R. J. B. Bosworth, Whispering Cities (2011); Susan Vandiver Nicassio, Imperial City: Rome, Romans and Napoleon, 1796–1815 (2005) and Frank J. Coppa, The Modern Papacy since 1789 (1998). On the Trastevere uprising of 1798 see Massimo Cattaneo, ‘Trastevere: Myths, Stereotypes and Reality of a Roman Rione between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries’ in Richard Wrigley (ed.), Regarding Romantic Rome (2007). On the reactionary popes of the earlier nineteenth century see Bosworth, Chadwick and Coppa. On the role of the arts in the Risorgimento, see Lucy Riall, Garibaldi: Invention of a Hero (2007). On Pius IX’s election and early, radical period and his falling out with the Romans see Chadwick and Bosworth. On Mazzini see Denis Mack Smith, Mazzini (2008). On Garibaldi’s early years and Mazzini’s role in his rise to fame see Riall, who offers a fascinating study of the role of publicity in the Risorgimento. On Louis Napoleon see Fenton Bresler, Napoleon III: A Life (1999).
II
On Rome’s Renaissance walls, see Peter Partner, Renaissance Rome 1500–59, A Portrait of a Society (1976). On the repair to Rome’s drains see Katherine Wentworth Rinne, ‘Urban Ablutions: cleansing Counter-Reformation Rome’ in Mark Bradley and Kenneth Stow (eds), Rome, Pollution and Propriety: Dirt, Disease and Hygiene in the Eternal City from Antiquity to Modernity (2012). On Rome’s repaired aqueducts and new fountains see Katherine Wentworth Rinne, The Waters of Rome: Aqueducts, Fountains and the Birth of the Baroque City (2010). On the transformation of Rome by Alexander VII and Bernini see Richard Krautheimer, The Rome of Alexander VII, 1655–1667 (1985).
On interruptions to the Grand Tour see Edward Chanery, The Evolution of the Grand Tour: Anglo-Italian Cultural Relations since the Renaissance (1998). For the earl of Shrewsbury’s money-saving stay and eminent writers and artists who stayed in Rome see J. A. Hilton, A Sign of Contradiction: English Travellers and the Fall of Papal Rome (2010) and also Paolo Ludovici and Biancamaria Pisapia (eds), Americans in Rome 1764–1870 (1984). On how visiting writers were struck by Rome’s filth, their different opinions as to which city was filthiest, and also Napoleonic French efforts to clear antiquities of accretions see Richard Wrigley, ‘ “It was dirty but it was Rome”: Dirt, Digression and the Picturesque’ in Richard Wrigley, Regarding Romantic Rome (2007). On grand plans to remake Rome in preparation for Napoleon’s visit see Nicassio. On the destruction of antiquities to remake Rome see David Karmon, The Ruin of the Eternal City: Antiquity and Preservation in Renaissance Rome (2011). On the new fascination with the Etruscans see Lisa C. Pieraccini, ‘The English, Etruscans and “Etouria”: The Grand Tour of Etruria’ in Etruscan Studies Vol. 12 (2009). On Rome’s fast days, clocks, time and its infuriating post office see Sir George Head, Rome: A Tour of Many Days (1849).
On Rome’s population see Fiorella Bartoccini, Roma nell’Ottocento: Il tramonto della ‘Città Santa’: nascita di una Capitale (1985). For the decline of Rome’s aristocracy see Giacomina Nenci, Aristocrazia romana tra ’800: I Rospigliosi (2004). On new intimacy in Italian aristocratic families see Marzio Barbagli, ‘Marriage and Family in Nineteenth Century Italy’ in John A. Davis and Paul Ginsborg (eds), Society and Politics in the Age of the Risorgimento: Essays in Honour of Denis Mack Smith (1991). On nineteenth-century Roman food see Fabio Parasecoli, Al Dente: A History of Food in Italy (2014) and Alberto Capatti and Massimo Montanari, Italian Cuisine: A Cultural History, trans. Aine O’Healy (2003). On the rising number of illegitimate births and the worsening survival rates of infants in foundling hospitals see Marzio Barbagli, ‘Marriage and Family in Nineteenth Century Italy’ in John A. Davis and Paul Ginsborg (eds), Society and Politics in
the Age of the Risorgimento: Essays in Honour of Denis Mack Smith (1991). And also Maria Sophia Quine, Italy’s Social Revolution: Charity and Welfare from Liberalism to Fascism (2002). On the make-up of Rome’s population see Bartoccini.
On knife fights see Silvio Negro, Seconda Roma (1943). On life under Leo XII see Bosworth. On the cicisbei, see Maurice Andrieux, Daily Life in Papal Rome in the Eighteenth Century, trans. Mary Fitton (1969). On the little that is known of prostitution in the last decades of papal Rome see Mary Gibson, Prostitution and the Italian State 1860–1915 (1999). On the Church’s moral policing of Rome, see Margherita Pelaja, Scandali: Sessualità e violenza nella Roma dell’Ottocento (2001). On the involvement of local Roman communities in moral policing see Domenico Rizzo, ‘Marriage on Trial: Adultery in Nineteenth Century Rome’ in Perry Willson, Gender, Family and Sexuality in Italy 1860–1945 (2004) and Domenico Rizzo, ‘L’Impossibile privato, Fama e pubblico scandalo in età liberal’, in Quaderni Storici No. 112, April 2003. On Odo Russell’s struggles with wayward female English grand tourists see Noel Blakiston, The Roman Question: Extracts from the Despatches of Odo Russell from Rome 1858–70 (1962). On the leniency of papal justice see Margherita Pelaja (above). On Rome’s jails and attempts to comfort the condemned before executions see Giuseppe Adinolfi, Storia di Regina Coeli e delle carceri romane (1998). On the San Michele institution see Elena Andreozzi, Il pauperismo a Roma e l’ospizio Apostolico San Michele in San Michele a Ripa: Storia e Restauro, Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana Fondata da G. Treccani (1983).
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