Corruption in South Africa, 1993–2012
Table 4
Employment rate by race and gender for those aged 15–64
Table 5
Levels of education by race, among those aged twenty years or more
Table 6
The effects of AIDS in South Africa
Knowledge of the HIV epidemic in South Africa is based largely on prevalence data gathered annually from pregnant women attending prenatal clinics since 1990. See above. The data yielded biased estimates of infection rates for the general population because of the limited sample. To remediate the problem, Statistics South Africa, the government’s statistical bureau, changed its estimates by adjusting for relative attendance rates at prenatal clinics and for the difference in prevalence between pregnant women and the general adult population. See below.
Table 7
South Africa’s Human Development Index (HDI) trends, 1980–2012
Table 8
South Africa’s HDI indicators for 2012 in comparison with sub-Saharan Africa
Table 9
South Africa’s HDI indicators for 2012 in comparison with BRICS, IBSA, CIVETS, and medium HDI countries
NOTES
Chapter 1: The Africans
1. Peta Jones, “Mobility and Migration in Traditional African Farming and Iron Age Models,” in Frontiers: Southern African Archaeology Today, ed. Martin Hall et al. (Cambridge, 1984), 289.
2. Most archaeologists of Southern Africa still adhere to this practice: e.g., Hall et al., Frontiers; Richard Klein, ed., Southern African Prehistory and Paleo-environments (Rotterdam and Boston, 1984); Martin Hall, The Changing Past: Farmers, Kings and Traders in Southern Africa, 200–1860 (Cape Town, 1987); and R. R. Inskeep, The Peopling of Southern Africa (Cape Town and London, 1978). David Phillipson, African Archaeology (Cambridge, 1985), however, abandons this terminology; so do John Parkington and Martin Hall in “Patterning Recent Radiocarbon Dates from Southern Africa as a Reflection of Prehistoric Settlement and Interaction,” Journal of African History 28 (1987): 1–25.
3. Phillipson, African Archaeology, 60–65.
4. In the modern Republic of South Africa, I include the four “Homelands” that the South African government deems to be independent states but no other government recognizes as such.
5. William J. Burchell, Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa, 2 vols. (London, 1824; reprint, Cape Town, 1967), 1:291.
6. Inskeep, Peopling, 86–93; E. O. J. Westphal, “The Linguistic Prehistory of Southern Africa: Bush, Kwadi, Hottentot and Bantu Linguistic Relationships,” Africa 33:3 (1963): 237–65; Christopher Ehret and Merrick Posnansky, eds., The Archaeological and Linguistic Reconstruction of African History (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1982).
7. Inskeep, Peopling, 94.
8. P. Vinnicombe, People of the Eland (Pietermaritzbiurg, 1976); J. D. Lewis-Williams, “The Rock Art Workshop: Narrative or Metaphor?” in Hall et al., Frontiers, 323–27.
9. Inskeep, Peopling, 101–2.
10. Ibid.
11. Carmel Schrire, ed., Past and Present in Hunter Gatherer Societies (Orlando and London, 1984); R. B. Lee and I. DeVore, eds., Man the Hunter (Chicago, 1968).
12. Inskeep, Peopling, 112.
13. Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics (New York, 1972). I thank Robert Harms for drawing my attention to Sahlins’s book and clarifying his argument.
14. Ibid., 21, 23.
15. Ibid., 29.
16. Ibid., 14, 37.
17. Inskeep, Peopling, 114–15.
18. Khoisan is a coined word. Pastoralists called themselves Khoikhoi and called hunter-gatherers San. The Khoisan peoples were, of course, Africans; but I use the term African in the narrower sense to identify the mixed farming peoples who spoke Bantu languages and whose descendants are the vast majority of the inhabitants of modern Southern Africa.
19. This hypothesis was stated in its most extreme form in G. W. Stow, The Native Races of South Africa (London, 1905).
20. Richard Elphick, Kraal and Castle: Khoikhoi and the Founding of White South Africa (New Haven and London, 1977).
21. Richard Elphick, Khoikhoi and the Founding of White South Africa (Johannesburg, 1985), rev. ed. of Kraal and Castle; James Denbow, “A New Look at the Later Prehistory of the Kalahari,” Journal of African History 27:1 (1986): 3–28; Nikolaas J. van der Merwe, “The Advent of Iron in Africa,” in The Coming of the Age of Iron, ed. Theodore A. Wertime and James D. Muhly (New Haven and London, 1980), 463–506; John E. Yellen, “The Integration of Herding into Prehistoric Hunting and Gathering Economies,” in Hall et al., Frontiers, 53–64.
22. Igor Kopytoff, ed., The African Frontier: The Reproduction of Traditional African Societies (Bloomington, Ind., 1987).
23. Phillipson, African Archaeology, 171. See also Tim Maggs, “The Iron Age South of the Zambezi,” in Klein, Southern African Prehistory, 329–60.
24. Phillipson, African Archaeology, 171.
25. Peta Jones, “Mobility and Migration,” 289–96
26. J. B. Peires, The House of Phalo (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1982), 19–22; Leonard Thompson, Survival in Two Worlds: Moshoeshoe of Lesotho, 1786–1870 (Oxford, 1975), 21–22.
27. Maggs, “Iron Age.”
28. Jones, “Mobility.”
29. Denbow, “A New Look.”
30. Phillipson says that in most of subequatorial Africa “the beginnings of food-production and of iron-working took place at the same time” (African Archaeology, 148); but Jones says, “There is no reason to suppose that iron-working and farming are congruent in space or time” (“Mobility,” 296).
31. This section is based mainly on Elphick, “The Cape Khoikhoi Before the Arrival of Whites” (Khoikoi, 3–68). See also Janette Deacon, “Later Stone Age People and Their Descendants in Southern Africa,” in Klein, Prehistory, 221–324.
32. Robert Harms, personal communication, citing Sahlins, Stone Age Economics.
33. William F. Lye, ed., Andrew Smith’s Journal of His Expedition into the Interior of South Africa, 1834–36 (Cape Town, 1975), 25–26.
34. Phillipson, African Archaeology, 148–49; van der Merwe, “Iron Age,” 489–90; Philip Curtin, Steven Feierman, Leonard Thompson, and Jan Vansina, African History (Boston, 1978), 20–25.
35. Eugène Casalis, The Basutos; or, Twenty-Three Years in South Africa (London, 1861; reprint, Cape Town, 1965), 131.
36. Ibid., 131–33. See also Ludwig Alberti’s Account of the Tribal Life and Customs of the Xhosa in 1807, trans. William Fehr (Cape Town, 1968), 73–74 (hereafter, Alberti, Xhosa).
37. Eugenia W. Herbert, Red Gold of Africa: Copper in Precolonial History and Culture (Madison, Wis. 1984), 26–27.
38. Ibid., 210. See Burchell, Travels, 1:566–73, for an account of Tswana copper ornaments, with illustrations.
39. John Bird, The Annals of Natal, 2 vols. (Cape Town, 1888), 1:46.
40. Alberti, Xhosa, 54.
41. Monica Hunter (Wilson), Reaction to Conquest, 2d ed. (London, 1961), 70.
42. Samson Mbizo Guma, “The Forms, Contents and Techniques of Traditional Literature in Southern Africa” (D. Litt. et Phil. diss., University of South Africa, 1964), 130. Discussions in Hunter, Conquest, 65–71, and Hugh Ashton, The Basuto (London, 1952), 134–43.
43. Peires, Phalo, 9; Ashton, Basuto, 138.
44. Caslis, Basuto, 163–64; Alberti, Xhosa, 56. Discussions in Hunter, Conquest, 71–95, and Ashton, Basuto, 120–33.
45. Rev. John Brownlee, “Account of the Amakosae, or Southern Kaffers,” in George Thompson, Travels and Adventures in Southern Africa (London, 1827; reprint, 2 vols., Cape Town, 1967, 1968), 2:209–10. Accounts of hunting also in Alberti, Xhosa, 74–78; Burchell, Travels, 2:420–21; and Andrew Smith’s Journal, 121–23.
46. Brownlee, “Amakosae,” 210–12.
47. Hall, Changing Past, 65–69.
48. Peires, Phalo, 95–98. For trade among the Tswana, see William Somerville’s Narrative of His Journeys to the Eastern Cap
e Frontier and to Lattakoe, 1799–1802, ed. Edna and Frank Bradlow (Cape Town, 1979), 141.
49. Gerrit Harinck, “Interaction between Xhosa and Khoi: Emphasis on the Period 1620–1750,” in African Societies in Southern Africa: Historical Studies, ed. Leonard Thompson (London, 1969), 145–70; Elphick, Khoikhoi, 63–67.
50. Lunguza ka Mpukane in The James Stuart Archive of Recorded Oral Evidence Relating to the History of the Zulu and Neighboring Peoples, vol. 1 (Pietermaritzburg, 1976), 342.
51. Alberti, Xhosa, 2, 21.
52. Ibid., 22–26; Bird, Annals of Natal, 1:47.
53. Amy Jacot-Guillarmod, The Flora of Lesotho (Lehrer, 1971); A. T. Bryant, Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men (Cape Town, 1966).
54. Bird, Annals of Natal, 1:46.
55. Ralph Austen, African Economic History (Portsmouth, N.H., and London, 1987), 17.
56. Burchell, Travels, 2:512, 514. A fine amateur artist, Burchell published two illustrations of “Litakun”: 2:360, 464.
57. Bird, Annals, 1:45–46.
58. Alberti, Xhosa, 57–59.
59. A. T. Bryant, Olden Times in Zululand and Natal (London, 1919), 74.
60. M. A. Boegner, ed., Livre d’or de la mission au Lessouto (Paris, 1912), 81–83. Hunter, Conquest, 87–92, describes Mpondo work parties in the 1930s.
61. Hunter, Conquest, 112–32.
62. Igor Kopytoff, “Introduction,” in African Frontier, 47, 61. Jeff Guy claims that the married men or homestead heads formed a “dominant class” in Southern African precapitalist societies (Analyzing Pre-Capitalist Societies in Southern Africa,” Journal of Southern African Studies 14:1 [October 1987]: 24). See also Claire Robertson and Iris Berger, eds., Women and Class in Africa (New York and London, 1986).
63. Thompson, Survival, 3–4.
64. Eugène Casalis, Journal des missions évangéliques 20 (1845): 283.
65. Prosper Lemue, ibid. 29 (1854): 209.
66. Kopytoff, “Introduction,” 29.
67. Monica Wilson, “The Nguni People,” in The Oxford History of South Africa, ed. Monica Wilson and Leonard Thompson, 2 vols. (Oxford, 1969, 1971), 1:120.
68. The information in this and the following two paragraphs is derived from my biography of Moshoeshoe, Survival, 14–16.
69. Guma, “Traditional Literature,” 113, 124
70. Robert Harms, “The Uncaptured Peasantry” (manuscript, 1986). See Goran Hyden, Beyond Ujamaa in Tanzania: Underdevelopment and an Uncaptured Peasantry (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1980).
71. Alberti, Xhosa, 87. On Xhosa warfare, see also ibid., 87–93, and Henry Lichtenstein, Travels in Southern Africa, trans. Anne Plumtre, 2 vols. (London 1812, 1815; reprint, Cape Town, 1928, 1930), 1:341–44.
72. Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (New York, 1978).
73. Wilson, “Nguni People,” 127–28.
74. On Mohlomi, see Thomas Arbousset and François Daumas, Relation d’un voyage d’exploration au nord-est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne Espérance en 1836 (Paris, 1842), trans. John C. Brown, Narrative of an Exploratory Tour to the Cape of Good Hope (Cape Town, 1846), 272–85; D. Frederic Ellenberger and J. C. Macgregor, History of the Basuto: Ancient and Modern (London, 1912), 90–97.
75. John Alexander and Peta Jones provide archaeologists’ models of this process in Hall, Frontiers, 12–23, 289–96.
76. Thompson, Survival, 19.
77. Monica Wilson, “The Sotho, Venda, and Tsonga,” in Oxford History, 1:148–49, 155–56, 165–66.
78. Alberti, Xhosa, 87.
79. Lichtenstein, Travels, 1:341.
80. Thompson, Survival, 13, 173.
81. Harinck, “Interaction.”
82. Peires, Phalo, 19.
83. Ibid., 24. See also Philip Tobias, “The Biology of the Southern African Negro,” in The Bantu-Speaking Peoples of Southern Africa, ed. W. D. Hammond-Tooke (London and Boston, 1974), 43–44, map on 26.
84. This is Kopytoff’s core argument in The African Frontier.
Chapter 2: The White Invaders
1. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Discoverers: A History of Man’s Search to Know His World and Himself (New York, 1983); J. H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance (New York, 1963).
2. Boorstin, Discoverers, 177.
3. C. R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800 (London, 1965); Fernand Braudel, The Perspective of the World, trans. Sian Reynolds (New York, 1984), chap. 3; Philip Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge, 1984), chap. 7.
4. The annual publications of the Van Riebeeck Society (Cape Town, 1918ff.) include many documents that are primary sources for this chapter. The Van Riebeeck Society was also responsible for the publication of the Journal of Jan van Riebeeck, ed. H. B. Thom, 3 vols. (Cape Town and Amsterdam, 1952, 1954, 1958). The basic synthesis is Richard Elphick and Hermann Giliomee, eds., The Shaping of South African Society, 1652–1820 (Cape Town and Middletown, Conn., 1989).
5. Gerrit Schutte, “Company and Colonists at the Cape, 1652–1795,” Leonard Duelke, “Freehold Farmers and Frontier Settlers, 1652–1780,” and Robert Ross, “The Cape of Good Hope and the World Economy, 1652–1835,” in Shaping.
6. Nigel Worden, Slavery in Dutch South Africa (Cambridge, 1985); Robert Ross, Cape of Torments: Slavery and Resistance in South Africa (London, 1983); James C. Armstrong and Nigel Worden, “The Slaves, 1652–1834,” in Shaping; R. L. Watson, The Slave Question: Liberty and Property in South Africa (Hanover, N.H., and London, 1990); Robert C.-H. Shell, Children of Bondage: A Social History of the Slave Society at the Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1838 (Hanover, N.H., and London, 1994).
7. Richard Elphick, Khoikhoi and the Founding of White South Africa (Johannesburg, 1985); Richard Elphick and V. C. Malherbe, “The Khoisan to 1828,” in Shaping.
8. Elphick, Khoikhoi, 237–38.
9. Ibid., 234.
10. Richard Elphick and Robert Shell, “Intergroup Relations: Khoikhoi, Settlers, Slaves and Free Blacks, 1652–1795,” in Shaping, 231.
11. Abraham Bogaert in Cape of Good Hope, 1652–1702: The First Fifty Years of Dutch Colonisation as Seen by Callers, ed. R. Raven-Hart, 2 vols. (Cape Town, 1971), 2:479.
12. Ibid., 480.
13. Ibid., 480–81.
14. Henry Lichtenstein, Travels in Southern Africa in the Years 1803, 1804, 1805, and 1806, 2 vols. (London, 1812; reprint, Cape Town, 1928, 1930), 1:57–58.
15. F. Valentyn, Description of the Cape of Good Hope with the Matters Concerning It, 2 vols. (Cape Town, 1971, 1973), 2:259, cited in Worden, Slavery, 97.
16. Schutte in Shaping, 303–7; A. J. Boeseken, “The Settlement under the van der Stels,” in Five Hundred Years: A History of South Africa, ed. C. F. J. Muller (Pretoria and Cape Town, 1969), 33–38.
17. Worden, Slavery, 115.
18. Carl Peter Thunberg, Travels at the Cape of Good Hope, ed. V. S. Forbes (Cape Town, 1986), 153.
19. Shell, Children of Bondage, 206–14; Worden, Slavery, 101–18.
20. Ross, Cape of Torments.
21. Robert Carl-Heinz Shell, “Slavery at the Cape of Good Hope, 1680 to 1731,” 2 vols. (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 1986), 1:292–93.
22. John Edwin Mason, “Paternalism under Siege: Slavery in Theory and Practice during the Era of Reform,” in Breaking the Chains: Slavery and Its Legacy in Nineteenth Century South Africa, ed. Nigel Worden and Clifton Crais (Johannesburg, 1995). See also John Edwin Mason, Fit for Trade: Slavery and Emancipation in South Africa (Charlottesville, Va., 1995).
23. Worden, Slavery, 143–44.
24. Elphick and Shell, “Intergroup Relations,” 204–24.
25. J. A. Heese, Die herkoms van die Afrikaner, 1657–1867 (Cape Town, 1971), 17–20, cited in Worden, Slavery, 147.
26. Guelke, “Freehold Farmers,” and Elphick and Malherbe, “Khoisan to 1828,” in Shaping; Robert Ross, “The First Two Centuries of Colonial Agriculture in the Cape Colony: A Historiographical Review,” Social Dynamics 9:1 (June 1983): 30–49; Pieter van Duin and Robert Ross, The Economy of the C
ape Colony in the Eighteenth Century (Leiden, 1987).
27. Van Duin and Ross, Economy, 114–23.
28. Scholars have debated the question of the extent to which the trekboers were involved in the market economy. See Martin Legassick, “The Frontier Tradition in Pre-Industrial South Africa,” in Economy and Society in Pre-Industrial South Africa, ed. Shula Marks and Anthony Atmore (London, 1980), 44–79; Guelke, “Freehold Farmers,” 58–71; Ross, “First Two Centuries,” 40–42.
29. Hendrik Swellengrebel to C. de Grijselaw, June 26, 1781, “A Few Considerations about the Cape,” in Briefwisseling van Hendrik Swellengrebel jr.oor Kaapse sake, 1778–1792 (Cape Town, 1982), 348.
30. Anders Sparrman, A Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope . . . and to the Country of the Hottentots and the Caffres from the Year 1772–1776, ed. V. S. Forbes, 2 vols. (Cape Town, 1975, 1977), 1:230.
31. Martin Legassick, “The Northern Frontier to c. 1840: The Rise and Decline of the Griqua People,” in Shaping; Elizabeth Eldredge and Fred Morton, eds., Slavery in South Africa: Captive Labor and the Dutch Frontier (Boulder, Colo., 1994).
32. Hermann Giliomee, “The Eastern Frontier, 1770–1812,” in Shaping, and “Processes in Development of the Southern African Frontier,” in The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared, ed. Howard Lamar and Leonard Thompson (New Haven and London, 1981), 76–119.
33. Giliomee, “Eastern Frontier.”
34. John Barrow, Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa in the Years 1797 and 1798, 2 vols. (London, 1801, 1804; reprint, 2 vols. in 1, London, 1968), 2:372.
35. Sparrman, Voyage, 1:88.
36. There has been much controversy over the origins of racism among white South Africans, developing out of the pathbreaking work of the psychologist I. D. MacCrone, Race Attitudes in South Africa (London, 1937). See Legassick, “Frontier Tradition” and “Northern Frontier”; Giliomee, “Eastern Frontier”; Giliomee and Elphick, “Structure of European Domination”; and Leonard Thompson, The Political Mythology of Apartheid (New Haven and London, 1985).
A History of South Africa Page 48