As he approached Vesali, Gotama stopped at the village of Koti. The news of his arrival reached the city, and the courtesan Ambapali drove out to meet him. Ambapali had once been the mistress of Bimbisara and had a son by him. She listened reverently to Gotama preach his dhamma, and invited him to stay at her mango grove near Vesali, an offer that Gotama accepted. She also asked him to take his meal with her the following day. Just as Gotama agreed to do so, several Licchavi men arrived at the grove to invite him for a meal with them. The Licchavis were dressed in colourful clothes and jewels, and each rode a magnificent chariot. Gotama smiled when he saw them and remarked that the gods themselves had arrived. But he turned down their invitation, saying that he had accepted Ambapali’s offer instead. The Licchavis did not mind, and returned to the city. Ambapali gifted her mango grove to Gotama and his monks, and later joined the Order as a nun.
Gotama, perhaps remembering Sunakkhatta’s denunciation of him before the parliament of Vesali and not wishing to invite more conflict into his life, decided not to stay in the city for the rainy season. He moved to the village of Beluva, permitting only Ananda to stay with him. He dismissed all the other monks who had joined him from Vesali and the surrounding villages, asking them to find shelter where they could during the rains. This was unusual for Gotama—it seemed that he was weary of the world and was already preparing to leave it. At Beluva, he fell severely ill with sharp pains, and though he recovered, the illness left him weak and exhausted.
Ananda was deeply shaken by Gotama’s illness. For the first time he realized that Gotama may die. But he had comforted himself with the thought that Gotama would not die before he had made some arrangements for the continuation of the Order. Gotama sighed and explained that he had taught the bhikkus all that he could, and now his work was done. He had never thought in terms of the Sangha being led, either by himself or any chosen leader—all bhikkus had the same knowledge, there was nothing that set one apart from the other. Each bhikku, said Gotama, must rely only on himself, and dhamma alone would be his refuge.
When the rains came to an end, Gotama asked Ananda to call his monks together. His end was near, he said, and he must bid them farewell. The monks assembled at Vesali, where Gotama addressed them. He urged them to follow the Eightfold Path and remain true to the dhamma. Next morning, he left Vesali, knowing that he would never see the city again.
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Pataligama, Pataliputta
Located near the modern city of Patna in Bihar, Patali was just a village during Gotama’s time. Its location, at the confluence of three great rivers, the Son, Gandak and Ganga, made it strategically important, and Ajatasattu fortified it as part of his preparations for war against the northern republics. Gotama prophesied that it would become one of the greatest cities of the world, but also foretold its destruction by fire and flood.
After Ajatasattu’s death, Pataligama replaced Rajagaha as the capital of Magadha. It reached its zenith as the capital of the emperor Ashoka who ruled Magadha from 269 BCE to 232 BCE. Ashoka’s empire covered almost the entire Indian subcontinent.
Pataligama was named after the Patali plant, a small tree that grows all over India and has medicinal properties.
The city was known to the Greeks as Palibothra.
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8
Nirvana: 483 BCE
Gotama was accompanied on his final journey by his cousins Ananda and Anuruddha, the monk Chunda, and a monk from Kosala called Upavana. They travelled north-west along the North Road in the direction of Sakya. They travelled through Bhandagama, Hatthigama, Ambagama, Jambugama and Bhoganagara. We cannot identify any of these villages today. From Bhoganagara, Gotama and his monks went to Pava, which is today the modern town of Fazilnagar. Pava was about a hundred and twenty kilometres from Vesali.
At Pava, Gotama stayed with Chunda, a metalworker. Chunda invited Gotama and his monks to a lavish meal, where he served a special dish called sukaramaddava. There is much dispute as to what this dish was—some commentaries say that this was a dish of pork, while others argue that it was a dish of truffles. It seems that Gotama was suspicious of this dish the moment it was served. He insisted that the sukaramaddava be served to him alone, and refused to let anyone else eat it. When the meal was over, he told Chunda to bury the sukaramaddava since it was indigestible. Once again, scholars argue about the significance of this comment—perhaps, say some, this was a flippant comment on Chunda’s abilities as a cook, while others suggest that Gotama had realized that the dish was poisoned and by asking Chunda to bury it, he wanted to make sure that no one else would eat it. We will never know for certain whether the sukaramaddava was poisoned or not; however what is known is that night Gotama fell violently ill. He began vomiting blood and his body was racked by pain.
The Pali texts tell us that Gotama mastered his illness with a great effort of will and set off for Kusinara. On the way, he was forced to rest, and sat down under a tree by the Kakuttha river. He told Ananda that he did not have long to live and would die at Kusinara. A little later, he told Ananda to make sure that Chunda the metalworker was not blamed for his death.
Gotama was exhausted and in pain by the time they finally reached Kusinara. He asked Ananda to make a bed for him between two sal trees in a sal grove by the road. The Buddhist texts tell us that as Gotama lay down beneath the trees, they burst into flower and showered him with their petals. Gotama declared that a greater honour to him would be for his teachings to be followed. The Mallas of Kusinara, learning that Gotama lay dying in the sal grove, came to pay their final respects.
Gotama knew that he did not have many hours left to live, and gave Ananda instructions for his cremation. Ananda, heartbroken, began to weep. Gotama gently reminded him of what he had taught him—all things pass, said Gotama, and so it was inevitable that he would too. Ananda begged him not to die, not just yet, not in Kusinara which was nothing but a cluster of mud huts in the jungle, and not worthy of him. Gotama consoled Ananda again and told him how Kusinara had once been a magnificent city called Kusavati.
Later that night, as Gotama lay in the sal grove with only his monks for company, a wandering ascetic called Subhadda came asking to see Gotama. Ananda refused, but Gotama overheard them and called Subhadda to his side. Gotama then explained the Eightfold Path to him, and Subhadda became his last convert.
It was the full moon night of the month of Vaisakh. Gotama turned to his monks and said that if any of them had any doubts about his teachings, now was when they should ask him. When the monks remained silent, he said, ‘All things decay and pass away; seek your salvation with diligence.’ These were Gotama’s last words. Soon afterwards, he passed away. He had attained Nirvana.
When the Mallas of Kusinara learnt of Gotama’s death, they came in hundreds to honour him. Mallika, the aged widow of Bandhula, covered Gotama’s body with her jewelled stole, and for seven days the people of Kusinara celebrated his Nirvana. But when they gathered to light his funeral pyre, it refused to ignite till the appearance of Gotama’s chief disciple Mahakassapa, accompanied by five hundred monks. When the rains had ended, Mahakassapa had received word in Rajagaha of Gotama’s illness at Vesali. Though he had left Rajagaha at once to be with Gotama, he had arrived too late.
Gotama’s pyre burnt away completely; it left no cinders and gave off no smoke. The Mallas fenced it with their spears and continued their celebrations of Gotama’s Nirvana for another seven days. We are told that at this time there appeared seven claimants for his relics including Ajatasattu, the Licchavis of Vesali, the Sakyans of Kapilavatthu, the Koliyas, the Mallas of Pava, a Brahmin from Vethadipa, and the Buli clan from the city of Allakappa. But the Mallas of Kusinara refused to share his relics. The others, indignant and angry, threatened war. At this point a Brahmin called Dona stepped into the breach. It was wrong, said Dona, to fight over the relics of the Buddha, who had been a man of peace. He suggested that the relics be divided into eight equal parts for the eight claimants. His suggestion was
accepted, and he was asked to distribute the relics. Dona did so, and for himself, he kept the vessel which had been used to collect and distribute the relics. The Moriya tribe from Pipphalvana who arrived late, carried off Gotama’s ashes. Ultimately, stupas were built over these relics. Two centuries later, the emperor Ashoka who became a follower of Gotama’s dhamma, redistributed these relics over several thousand stupas. Today they are enshrined in various stupas across Asia.
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Important Buddhist Sites in India
The four places most sacred to the Buddhists are:
Lumbini: located in the Himalayan foothills in what is now Nepal, the birthplace of Siddhartha Gautama
Uruvela: modern Bodh Gaya in the modern Indian state of Bihar, the place where Gautama attained enlightenment
Isipatana: modern Sarnath, a few kilometres from the city of Varanasi in the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, where he preached his first sermon
Kusinara: modern Kushinagara in north-eastern Uttar Pradesh, where he attained Nirvana.
Other important Buddhist sites in India include
Don: near modern Patna, it is the place where the Brahmin Dona built a stupa to enshrine the vessel which had contained Gautama’s ashes
Mathura: in western Uttar Pradesh, visited by Gautama, who did not like the town very much; a centre of Buddhism for nearly a thousand years, and a great centre of Buddhist art. Modern day Mathura is a busy and crowded city, and an important pilgrimage centre for Hindus.
Nalanda: in Bihar, 90 kilometres south-east of Patna, where Gautama met and converted Mahakassapa, and later the site of the great university of Nalanda. Gautama visited Nalanda often, and many of his important discourses were given here; the ruins of the university can still be seen.
Pataligama: later known as Pataliputra, modern Patna, in Bihar, the capital of Magadha after Ajatasattu’s death, and the capital of the emperor Ashoka two centuries after Gautama’s death; the site of the Third Buddhist Council; the ancient city was constructed mainly of wood.
Rajagaha: modern Rajgir, close to Nalanda, about 100 kilometres from Patna, the capital of Magadha during the reigns of Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, the site of many important events in Gautama’s life; nothing remains of the original city, though the impressive ring of hills are still as they must have been in Gautama’s day
Savatthi: also known as Sravasti, near the modern city of Lucknow, in Uttar Pradesh, the site of Jetavanarama, the monastery built for Gautama by Anathapindika and where he spent more than twenty years of his life; the ruins of Jetavana can be seen, set in landscaped gardens
Vesali: modern Vaishali in north-western Bihar, the capital of the Licchavis, and one of Gautama’s favourite retreats
Kapilavatthu: also known as Kapilavastu, outside the modern village of Piprahwa, on the border of India and Nepal, the place where Gautama grew up; the ruins of the old town can still be seen
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Epilogue: After Buddha
The sayings of Siddhartha Gautama resound through the centuries. The world today is changing faster than ever before. Economic development and technology have brought with them prosperity and growth, but also uncertainty, war, environmental degradation and the exploitation of man by man. Gautama’s teachings to shed greed and desire, to become free of ego and to embrace the world with compassion and kindness thus carry special relevance today.
The work to preserve his teachings began three months after his death with the summoning of the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha. The story goes that when the Buddha died, his monks began to weep with grief. Only one old monk, the barber Subhadda (not to be confused with the ascetic Subhadda who was the Buddha’s last convert) rejoiced. The Buddha had once refused food that Subhadda had ordered to be prepared for him, and he had waited all his life for an opportunity to criticise the Buddha. He called to the other monks to stop weeping and said, ‘We are well rid of our teacher and his rules; we can now do as we like.’ Mahakashyapa overheard these words of the old monk, and as soon as the celebrations around the Buddha’s Nirvana had ended, he called upon all the senior monks to meet at Rajagaha, where he declared they would recite the Buddha’s teachings and commit them to memory so as to preserve and pass them on to future generations. The recitation of the Buddha’s dhamma at this Council formed the heart of what we now call the Pali Canon.
In the years following Gautama’s death, the bhikkus of his Order began to disagree amongst themselves regarding some of the rules laid down by Gautama. About a hundred years after his death, the Second Buddhist Council met at Vesali to discuss these differences. This was a significant event, for at the end of the Council, the Order split into two groups—the Theravada School consisting of those who adhered closely to Gautama’s original rules, and the liberals who favoured a less severe interpretation. The liberals called themselves the Mahasangha; they eventually evolved into the tradition known as Mahayana Buddhism. The less austere practices of Mahayana Buddhism made it easier for the common people to follow.
One of the most important events in the spread of Buddhism was the conversion of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka to Gautama’s dhamma. Ashoka succeeded to the throne at Pataliputra in 269 BCE after a prolonged and bloody power struggle. He then devoted himself to the extension and consolidation of the Mauryan Empire, so that it covered almost the entire Indian subcontinent. His conquest of Kalinga (modern Orissa) in 260 BCE was particularly bloody. The destruction caused by the war filled Ashoka with remorse. He gave up violence and became devoted to the practice of dhamma. He took it upon himself to instruct his people in dhamma and to spread Gautama’s teachings far and wide. He made a deep study of Buddhist scriptures and took tours called dhamma-yatras during which he travelled his empire, visiting the common people and instructing them in dhamma. He also spread Gautama’s teachings through his edicts which he had carved on rocks and stone pillars that he erected throughout his empire. He sent missionaries to spread Gautama’s teachings all over India and beyond. His missionaries reached as far as Egypt, Palestine and Greece.
Ashoka’s son Mahindra and his daughter Sanghamitra took Gautama’s teachings to Sri Lanka. They carried with them a branch of the original Bodhi tree, which was planted at the temple in Anuradhapura. The tree still grows there. The Fourth Buddhist Council was held in Sri Lanka in the first century BCE. It was at this time that the Pali Canon was written down for the first time. The Buddhist tradition followed in Sri Lanka was of the traditionalist school, the Theravada. Over time, this tradition died out in India, but continued to thrive in Sri Lanka, from where it spread to Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia and Laos.
Gautama’s teachings reached China in 67 CE. Legend says that the Chinese emperor had a dream which told him to send his men down the Silk Road, the trade route between China and the West; the Emperor did so, and his men returned with a picture of Gautama and a copy of one of his sermons. The first Buddhist community in China was established in 150 CE. The Mahayana Buddhism introduced from India was influenced by China’s own religions and beliefs, so that very soon there emerged a branch of Buddhism that was Chinese in flavour. This form of Chinese Mahayana Buddhism spread to Korea, Japan and Vietnam.
Buddhism reached Tibet from India some time during the eighth century CE. Though it suffered a decline over the next two centuries, it became firmly established in the eleventh century CE. In 1578, the head of the Tibetan Buddhists was given the title of Dalai Lama. The present Dalai Lama is the fourteenth. Forced to flee Tibet in 1951, he now has his headquarters in Dharamsala, India.
Buddhism finally made its way to Europe in the nineteenth century. The colonial powers—England, France and Germany—became aware of India’s and China’s ancient past, and scholars began to learn Indian and Chinese languages and translate ancient texts. Societies and clubs for the study of Asian culture sprang up all across Europe, including some with an eager interest in Buddhism.
From Europe, the interest spread to America. American interest in Buddhism
was further fuelled by the coming of thousands of Chinese immigrants during the end of the nineteenth century, and again during the Second World War. In the 1960s came immigrants from South-East Asia—today, almost 75 per cent of American Buddhists are of Asian origin.
So, what made Siddhartha Gautama so special that entire kingdoms wept when he died, and kings and princes quarrelled amongst themselves to do him honour? He was a mortal, a human being like you and me—so why did his followers come to believe that he was God? Why do we still want to read about him twenty-five centuries after his death? Why do his words still touch us and his teachings shine like a beacon for so many?
For his friends and followers, Gautama’s teachings provided a refuge from the harsh cruelties of the world. Pasenadi came to him seeking counsel, and at the end reassurance and peace; Ajatashatru sought peace of mind, an easing of the guilt he felt for his father’s murder; Angulimala achieved release from the horrendous anguish of life as a murderer. Gautama extended to all of them a fair and impartial compassion.
Gautama’s true greatness lies in his humanity. As a young man, he was tortured by questions that most of us have asked ourselves at some point in our lives—why are we alive, what is the point of our existence? We can identify with his anguish, and his desire to search for a better, more meaningful life. What sets Gautama apart and makes him different from most of us is that he had the courage to search for the answers. He was not afraid to leave his safe and familiar world and step out into the unknown. And having found the answers he was seeking, he spent the rest of his life living by them. This took him close to divinity in the eyes of his followers—not because he had risen above his humanity, but because he had embraced it more fully than any of us have done, and by doing so had touched the divine.
Gautama Buddha Page 7