Hitler's First Victims

by Timothy W. Ryback

  17 “I pleaded successfully with Hindenburg”: Testimony of von Papen, June 17, 1946, IMT, vol. 16, 276.

  18 “Dear Herr Reich Chancellor”: Letter from Hindenburg to Hitler, “Gegen die Entlassung kriegsbeschädigter jüdischer Justizbeamter,” Berlin, April 4, 1933, in Hubatsch, Hindenburg und der Staat, 374.

  19 “all officials, judges, teachers, and lawyers”: Ibid.

  20 “Thus far Prussia has”: Papen, Der Wahrheit eine Gasse, 323.

  21 “For more than seventeen years”: Letter from Carl Melchior, “Carl Melchior an den Reichspräsidenten,” Hamburg, May 6, 1933, in Reichskanzleiakten, vol. 1, 430–32.

  22 The Nazi Party program: “Program of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party”, The Avalon Project, Yale University, http://​avalon.​law.​yale.​edu/​imt/​nsdappro.​asp.

  23 “In the long years of party struggle”: Papen, Der Wahrheit eine Gasse, 325. See also Cabinet meeting minutes, “Betrifft: Auslandspropaganda,” Reichkanzleiakten, May 24, 1933, 477–79.

  25 “The world will learn”: Goebbels diary, April 1, 1933, Joseph Goebbels Tagebücher, Band 2: 1930–1934, ed. Ralf Georg Reuth (Munich: Piper Verlag, 1999), 790.

  26 Pope Pius XI and his close adviser: Ludwig Volk, Das Reichskonkordaat vom 20 Juli 1933 (Mainz: Matthias-Grünwald Verlag, 1972), 64.

  27 “His Holiness greeted my wife”: Papen, Der Wahrheit eine Gasse, 314.

  28 “Roosevelt and Hitler both entered office”: Hjalmar Schacht, 76 Jahre meines Lebens (Bad Wörishofen: Kindler und Schiermeyer Verlag, 1953), 390.

  29 Rosenberg had aspired: Ernst Piper references Rosenberg’s aspiration in Alfred Rosenberg: Hitlers Chefideologue (Munich: Karl Blessing Verlag, 2005), 287. Neurath’s testimony in Nuremberg confirmed Hindenburg’s insistence that Neurath remain foreign minister. See June 22, 1946, IMT, vol. 16, 600.

  30 “My grandfather”: Testimony of Neurath, June 22, 1946, IMT, vol. 16, 593.

  31 In March, Hindenburg signed: Ministerial meeting minutes, “Ausserhalb der Tagesordnung: Flaggenerlass,” March 11, 1933, Reichskanzleiakten, vol. 1, 195.

  32 “creation of the APA”: John P. Fox, “Alfred Rosenberg in London,” Contemporary Review, July 1, 1968, 6.

  33 “We in this country”: Fox, “Alfred Rosenberg in London,” 8.

  34 “Germany had lost the sympathy”: “Simon and Hitler Envoy in Angry Session: German’s Visit Is Denounced in Commons,” New York Times, May 11, 1933.

  35 “in honor of”: Fox, “Alfred Rosenberg in London,” 9.

  36 “a deliberate protest”: “British Minister Warns the Reich of ‘Sanctions’ If It Bolts on Arms: Hailsham Threatens Action Under Versailles Treaty—Rosenberg Denounced in Parliament—Margot Asquith Tells Him Nazi Policies Are Held in Contempt,” New York Times, May 12, 1933.

  37 in what capacity had Rosenberg come: Fox, “Alfred Rosenberg in London,” 6–11.

  38 London “raged” at: “London Rages at Hitler Aide: Rosenberg Has Unlucky Day as Visitor in Britain; Wreath Laid on Cenotoph Dumped into River; Objection to His Admission to Country Raised,” Los Angeles Times, May 12, 1933.

  39 “The government of this representative”: John Steele, “Rosenberg Has Another Sad Day in London: Reds Denounce Hitler at Envoy’s Hotel,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 13, 1933.

  40 “A number of incidents”: Testimony of Alfred Rosenberg, April 15, 1946, IMT, vol. 11, 454.

  41 The catastrophic state: For Hitler’s May 17, 1933, speech on foreign policy at the Reichstag, see Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik, 446.

  42 Hitler addressed the American people: Andrew Nagorski, Hitlerland: American Eyewitnesses to the Nazi Rise to Power (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012). On the note in the foreign ministry files, see “Aufzeichnung des Oberregierungsrats Thomsen über eine Unterredung des Reichskanzlers mit dem Sonderkorrespondenten von Collier’s Weekly, Ybarra,” May 18, 1933, Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik, 461.

  43 “In observing the American attitude”: T. R. Ybarra, “Says Hitler,” Collier’s Weekly, July 1, 1933, 17.

  44 “His face was solemn”: Ibid.

  45 “Whatever violence there was”: Ibid.

  46 “You have—let me”: Ibid.

  47 “Here is what I wish”: Ibid.

  48 “spoke warmly of the speech”: Telegram from German ambassador Luther to the Foreign Office in Berlin, “Der Botschafter in Washington an das Auswärtige Amt,’Hatte 3/4 stündige Unterredung allein mit Präsident,’ ” May 23, 1933, Akten zur deutschen auswärtigen Politik, 475.

  49 “The purpose of today’s meeting”: Ministerial meeting minutes, May 24, 1933, Reichskanzleiakten, vol. 1, 477.

  50 “For this purpose, sending attachés”: Ibid.

  51 “The foreign office cannot”: Ibid.

  52 “From these deliberations”: Ibid., 478.

  53 “advancement of our ideals”: Ibid., 478–79.

  54 “The question of responsibility”: Ibid.

  55 “We find ourselves”: Ibid., 479.

  56 “You have made”: Schacht, 76 Jahre meines Lebens, 393.

  57 “our foreign propaganda”: Ministerial meeting minutes, May 26, 1933, Reichskanzleiakten, vol. 1, 489–91.

  58 “The Reich government”: Ibid., 491.

  14 DEATH SENTENCE

  1 “Watch out or you”: The German originals are: “Vorsicht sonst kommst du nach Dachau”; “Sprechen ist Silber. Schweigen ist Gold”; and “Lieber Gott, mach mich stumm, dass ich nicht nach Dachau kumm.” The word kumm is Bavarian dialect that derives from the High German kommen.

  2 “Munich’s quiet is entirely”: “Tourists Sought by Bavarian Nazis,” New York Times, July 4, 1933, 6.

  3 Hartinger then asked: Letter from Josef Hartinger to the Spruchkammer, Amberg, July 13, 1949, StAAm 589.

  4 “unethical exercise of his profession”: Reinhard Weber, Das Schicksal der jüdischen Rechtsanwälte in Bayern nach 1933 (Oldenbourg: Wissenschaftsverlag, 2006), 53.

  5 “his face belonged in a police album”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to the Spruchkammer, July 13, 1949.

  6 “Above all I wanted”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to the Bavarian state minister of justice, August R. Lang, January 16, 1984, DaA 20.108.

  7 Hartinger ordered an autopsy: See Hartinger’s register in the Appendix.

  8 “It was sometime in May”: Wintersberger testimony, Bamberg, March 7, 1951, DaA 8768.

  9 attacked him with a table knife: Deposition of Josef Mutzbauer, “Beglaubigte Abschrift, Betreff: Nefzger Sebastian,” May 26, 1933, DaA 8834.

  10 the Mutzbauer protocol: Ibid.

  11 “You can strike Lehrburger”: Testimony of Anton Schöberl, “Zeugenvernehmungsprotokoll Betrifft Zill Egon wegen Kriegsverbrechen,” August 20, 1951, StAM Stanw 34462/10.

  12 Agents of the Nuremberg: Ibid.

  13 “I refused and explained”: Testimony of Anton Vogel, “Zeugenvernehmungsprotokoll aufgenommen in der Voruntersuchung gegen Wicklmayr Karl u.a.,” January 15, 1951, StAM Stanw 34439.

  14 “Lehrburger was a Soviet Russian agent”: Interrogation of Hans Steinbrenner, Garmisch, August 19, 1948, DaA 12.288.

  15 “There is nothing easier”: Ibid.

  16 “In accordance with the instruction”: Deposition of Josef Mutzbauer, May 26, 1933.

  17 “The forensic examination”: See memorandum, “Konzentrationslager Dachau Politische Abteilung—An das Amtsgericht Dachau,” signed Dr. Nürnbergk, May 27, 1933, DaA 8834.

  18 Dr. Nürnbergk wanting to know: “Vormerkung zum Falle Nefzger,” signed Dr. Flamm, Munich, June 1, 1933, StAM Stanw 7014.

  19 close-up photographs: Photographs from Flamm’s autopsy, StAM Stanw 7014.

  20 “of powerful build”: “Protokoll aufgenommen in Sachen Leichenschau und Leichenöffnung zum Tode des verh. Kaufmanns Nefzger Sebastian aus München im Konzentrationslager Dachau,” signed Dr. Flamm, Dr. Mueller, Essel, Brücklmeier, Dachau, May 29, 1933, DaA 8834.

  21 As Flamm prepared to leave: Flamm, “Vo
rmerkung zum Falle Nefzger.”

  22 On Monday afternoon, Flamm: Ibid.

  23 “The left temporal side”: Nefzger autopsy, see attachment to “Beglaubigte Abschrift Protokoll in Sachen Leichenschau und Leichenöffnung zum Tode des verh. Kaufmanns Nefzger Sebastian.”

  24 His conclusions were: Ibid.

  25 He summarized each case: See Hartinger’s register, May 30, 1933, in the Appendix.

  26 “I had in fact”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to August R. Lang, January 16, 1984.

  27 “If the prosecutor’s office”: Strafprozessordnung, 148.

  28 “Nazis were required to report”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to August R. Lang, January 16, 1984.

  29 “Since it was necessary to act”: Sworn statement of Dr. Hermann Kiessner, “Eidesstattliche Erklärung,” Munich, January 6, 1947, in Hartinger, “Spruchkammerverfahren,” StAAm 589.

  30 As a former judge: Letter from Josef Hartinger to August R. Lang, January 16, 1984.

  31 “It was clear to both”: Sworn statement of Dr. Kiessner, January 6, 1947.

  32 “the police department commanded great respect”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to August R. Lang, January 16, 1984.

  33 Three weeks earlier: Hirsch was returned to the concentration camp but was lodged with the other detainees and no longer subjected to the abuses he had experienced in the Arrest Bunker. See Hirsch testimony, January 27, 1949.

  34 “We started talking”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to August R. Lang, January 16, 1984.

  35 “my wife was often ill”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to the Spruchkammer, Amberg, February 14, 1948, StAAm 589.

  36 “It was clear to me”: Ibid.

  37 “I hereby issue”: Indictment signed by Josef Hartinger for the death of Sebastian Nefzger, June 1, 1933, StAM Stanw 7014.

  38 “Although the accused”: Ibid.

  39 “I submit a request”: Ibid.

  40 “I just signed my own death sentence”: See Helene Hartinger’s sworn statement, “Spruchkammerverfahren, Josef Hartinger,” Amberg, February 14, 1948, StAAm 589.

  15 GOOD-FAITH AGREEMENTS

  1 “I pointed out that”: Wintersberger report to justice ministry on meeting with Himmler, “Betreff: Ableben von Schutzhaftgefangenen im Konzentrationslager Dachau,” June 2, 1933, DaA 18.788. Wintersberger begins his memo with the word auftragsgemäss, or “as instructed,” indicating that the meeting with Himmler was prearranged and on higher instruction. Given Hartinger’s jurisdictional responsibilities for Dachau and his central role in the invesigtation, it is curious that Wintersberger did not inform Hartinger.

  2 Wintersberger had personally investigated: Wintersberger memo of June 1, 1933, closing the case on the Lehrburger shooting, DaA 18.727.

  3 “In case the justice officials”: Hans-Günter Richardi, Schule der Gewalt: Die Anfänge des Konzentrationslagers Dachau 1933–1934: Ein dokumentischer Bericht (Munich: C. H. Beck Verlag, 1995), 36.

  4 “We took these measures”: “Ein Konzentrationslager für politische Gefangene in der Nähe von Dachau,” Münchner Neueste Nachrichten, March 22, 1933.

  5 Wagner appointed Munich police chief Himmler: Johannes Tuchel, Konzentrationslager: Organisationsgeschichte und Funktion der ‘Inspektion der Konzentrationslager’ 1934–1938 (Boppard am Rhein: Harald Boldt Verlag, 1991), 122.

  6 “The command of the SS guard”: “Wachtruppe Übergabe-Protokoll: Konzentrationslager Dachau,” May 30, 1933, BayHSta Lapo Kdo. Bd. 8.

  7 Wintersberger had visited: For details of Wintersberger’s visit to Döbig and Wintersberger’s discussion with Wäckerle, see Friedrich Döbig’s memorandum titled “Betreff: Konzentrationslager Dachau,” June 1, 1933. Appended is Wintersberger’s memo “Betreff: Schutzhaftlager Dachau,” dated May 29, 1933, with a copy of Wäckerle’s regulations (Lagerordnung), DaA 18.736.

  8 death penalties violated state law: Ibid.

  9 “any appearance of interference”: Ibid.

  10 “The state’s authority”: Letter to Ludwig Siebert from a deputy SA special commissioner (Sonderkommissar), cited in Lothar Gruchmann, Justiz im Dritten Reich 1933–1940: Anpassung und Unterwerfung in der Ära Gürtner, 2nd ed. (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1990), 381.

  11 “Everyone arrests everyone”: Ibid.

  12 In one incident: Gruchmann, Justiz im Dritten Reich, 384.

  13 The SS man was beaten: Ibid.

  14 Eicke’s psychiatrist wrote: Ibid., 137.

  15 Eicke had tripled: Ibid., 131.

  16 Himmler personally promoted him: Ibid., 136.

  17 “I intend to use Eicke”: Ibid., 138.

  18 “Police Chief Himmler”: Wintersberger report to justice ministry on meeting with Himmler, June 2, 1933, DaA 18.737.

  16 RULES OF LAW

  1 “When I subsequently”: Sworn statement of Dr. Hermann Kiessner, “Eidesstattliche Erklärung,” Munich, January 6, 1947, in Hartinger “Spruchkammerverfahren,” StAAm 589.

  2 “It would have been”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to the Bavarian state minister of justice, August R. Lang, January 16, 1984, DaA 20.108.

  3 “As I was returning”: Ibid.

  4 “He answered in the negative”: Ibid.

  5 “As the district party leader”: “Die Voruntersuchungen zum Reichstagsbrand abgeschlossen,” Völkischer Beobachter, June 3, 1933.

  6 “It was clear to both of us”: Sworn statement of Dr. Kiessner, January 6, 1947.

  7 “boundless respect for the courage”: Johan Schütz, Josef Hartinger: Ein mutiger Staatsanwalt im Kampf gegen den KZ-Terror (Munich: Bayrisches Staatsministerium der Justiz, 1990), 8.

  8 “We will shoot you”: “Spruchkammerverfahren Josef Hartinger.” Amberg, February 14, 1948, StA AM 589.

  9 have Hartinger “taken care of”: Letter from Hans Steinbrenner to Josef Hartinger, cited in Otto Gritschneder, “Es gab auch solche Staatsanwälte,” Münchner Stadtanzeiger, February 24, 1984, 5.

  10 “I told my husband repeatedly”: Helene Hartinger’s testimony (Eidesstattliche Erklärung), Amberg, February 14, 1948, “Spruchkammerverfahren Josef Hartinger.” Hartinger’s wife was referring to the situation after they had moved to Amberg and found themselves under close scrutiny by local Nazis, but I have taken the liberty of situating this quote in the context of their Munich years.

  11 “because Wicklmayr’s assertions”: Wintersberger memo of June 1, 1933, closing the case on the Lehrburger killing, “Staatsanwaltschaft von dem Landgerichte München II an den Herrn Generalstaatsanwalt bei dem Oberlandesgerichts München Beteff: Ableben des Schutzgefangenen Karl Lehrburger im Kozentrationslager Dachau,” DaA 18.727.

  12 “I really do not know”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to August R. Lang, January 16, 1984.

  13 “I explained to Minister Counselor Döbig”: A copy dated March 7, 1951, of the original Wintersberger memo to the files dated June 21, 1933. It contains a three-page list with eight entries chronicling his attempts to have the files returned. The last one is dated May 11, 1934. The list is attached to Testimony of Karl Wintersberger, Bamberg, March 7, 1951, DaA 8768.

  14 “This could not be carried out”: Sworn statement of Dr. Kiessner, January 6, 1947.

  15 “I had Reich governor”: Testimony of Hans Frank, April 18, 1946, IMT, vol. 12, 5.

  16 Himmler was instructed: Hans-Günter Richardi, Schule der Gewalt: Die Anfänge des Konzentrationslagers Dachau 1933–1934: Ein dokumentischer Bericht (Munich: C. H. Beck Verlag, 1995), 113.

  17 “After that I continued protesting”: Testimony of Hans Frank, April 18, 1946, IMT, vol. 12, 5.

  18 eventually referred the matter: Ibid.

  19 “I am assigning you as of July 15”: Memo from Reichsführer SS to SS-Sturmhauptführer, July 27, 1933, DaA A 4369.

  20 “In the entire facility”: Eicke letter dated August 10, 1936, Berlin, “An dem Reichsführer-SS,” DaA 16444.

  21 “considered a necessary evil”: Ibid.

  22 “I went energetically and happily”: Ibid.

  23 The reporte
r, who referred to it as an “educational camp”: “Special Correspondent,” “Times Writer Visits Reich Prison Camp,” New York Times, July 26, 1933, 9. The quotations from the New York Times that follow are taken from this article.

  24 “It was certainly”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to the Bavarian state minister of justice, August R. Lang, February 11, 1984.

  25 He was followed in September: Memorandum of Chief Prosecutor Karl Wintersberger, “Ableben des Schutzhaftgefangenen Hugo Handschuch im Lager Dachau,” September 19, 1933, DaA 1588/4.

  26 two suicides by hanging: See Hartinger’s register, undated, in the Appendix.

  27 “so-called handcrafted murders”: Emil J. Gumbel, Vier Jahre politischer Mord (Berlin-Fichtenau: Verlag der Neuen Gesellschaft, 1922), 125.

  28 “It would have been”: Letter from Josef Hartinger to August R. Lang, January 16, 1984.

  29 “I was only doing”: Ibid.

  EPILOGUE: THE HARTINGER CONVICTION

  1 In the summer of 1945: Found with the files was a letter from “Polizeipräsident Pitzer an Oberstaatsanwalt beim Landgerichte München II,” dated December 31, 1946, StAAm 589: 92.

  2 Jackson had envisioned Adolf Hitler: John Q. Barrett, “The Nuremberg Roles of Justice Robert H. Jackson,” Washington University Global Studies Law Review 6 (2007): 518.

  3 According to a calculation: Ibid., 519.

  4 “You can’t indict a government”: Leon Goldensohn, The Nuremberg Interviews (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 33.

  5 He indicted twenty-four: Martin Bormann, head of the Parteikanzlei and Hitler’s personal secretary, was tried in absentia; head of the German Labor Front Robert Ley committed suicide shortly after the trial began; and industrialist Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach was deemed too old to stand trial. For a list of the twenty-one who stood trial, see the Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 14 November 1945–1 October 1946 (IMT) files in the Avalon Project, Yale University, avalon.​law.​yale.​edu.