My own opinion, after reviewing the material for and against Cochrane and after consulting the views of a distinguished judge on the evidence presented at the trial, is that Cochrane was innocent of any involvement in the planning and executing of the fraud. It seems possible that he may have suspected that something was amiss when De Berenger came to his house but that he decided to stand by his uncle Cochrane-Johnstone, not realising that to do so would lead to his being found guilty by association. There is no doubt that Cochrane was taken aback by the verdict and shocked by the sentence. Even by the standards of the day the sentence of imprisonment, a fine of £1,000 and the pillory was severe and must surely have been politically motivated. For forty-five years Cochrane carried on a single-minded crusade to overturn the verdict of the court. This could be seen as the bloody-mindedness of an arrogant man determined to get his own back on the world, but it seems more likely to have been driven by the natural desire of an innocent man to clear the stain on his character and on the Dundonald family name.
Whatever the differing opinions on the Stock Exchange trial, most of the critics of Cochrane are agreed that he was a remarkable man. Henry Cecil described him as ‘a man of immense courage and almost fantastic determination’10 and Brian Vale summed him up as ‘a master of naval warfare, the scourge of the French, the liberator of South America, a talented inventor and a fearless fighter for radical causes’.11 As a naval commander Cochrane was bold and resourceful; brave but cool in action; and a master of the ruse and stratagem. His men were devoted to him and he went out of his way to ensure their safety by his careful reconnaissance and detailed preparations before any action. During his lifetime and in the years following his death he was frequently compared with Nelson but such a comparison does him no favours. Their backgrounds were very different; their naval careers had little in common; and their achievements were not remotely comparable. Nelson had the good fortune to be born at the right time so that he was in a position of relatively high command when the opportunities arose; in addition to his personal courage and his qualities as a bold tactician and an inspirational leader, he was the supreme exponent of pitched battles between fleets. Cochrane never commanded a squadron let alone a fleet until he arrived in South America and the circumstances and conditions there bore little resemblance to those which faced Nelson in Europe. A more meaningful comparison would be with those seamen who excelled at coastal raids like Sir Francis Drake and Sir Henry Morgan – or John Paul Jones, a fellow Scot who became an American hero, made his name with some spectacular single-ship actions but ended his career fighting for the Russian navy.
Apart from the numerous biographies and what might be called his literary legacy (his autobiography, the novels by Captain Marryat, G. A. Henty, C. S. Forester, Patrick O’Brian and others) it is surprising how little there is to show today for such an extraordinary life. There is the memorial tablet in Westminster Abbey, a few pictures of his naval actions, some caricatures and engravings, and the family portraits. But unlike Drake, Anson, Hawke, Rodney, Hood, St Vincent, Collingwood, Nelson and a dozen other naval heroes who were the subjects of commemorative pottery, and have had ships and streets and pubs named after them, Cochrane has not made much of a mark in Britain, and his reputation among naval historians has suffered a steady decline. It is only in South America that he receives the recognition which might have been expected of such a heroic figure. Dozens of streets, and a small town, are named after him in Chile. There is a magnificent statue of him on the waterfront of Valparaiso and several rooms of the maritime museum are devoted to him. And in the house of the Nobel prize-winning poet Pablo Neruda there is a framed copy of the moving poem he wrote to commemorate Cochrane’s contribution to the liberation of his country which begins, ‘Lord of the sea come to us…’
It was Cochrane’s fate as a naval commander to spend most of his career operating on the margins of naval history and, apart from the controversial action at Basque Roads, he never had the opportunity to distinguish himself in a famous sea battle. It is interesting to speculate what sort of posthumous reputation he might have enjoyed if he had died at the age of thirty-four during or immediately after the fireship attack on the French fleet. The court martial of Lord Gambier would not have taken place and Basque Roads would have been seen as a glorious victory and not a wasted opportunity. His exploits in the Speedy, the Pallas and the Imperieuse would have been recalled, as they were in a celebratory article in the Naval Chronicle in 1809, and he would have been hailed as the boldest and best of a generation of brilliant frigate captains. The words of one of these captains, who observed Cochrane’s operations along the coast of Spain in the autumn of 1808, provide a memorable summary of his talents as a seaman: ‘The conduct of Lord Cochrane during this service is far above my praise,’ Jahleel Brenton reported to Admiral Collingwood. ‘It was throughout a most animating example of intrepidity, zeal, professional skill and resources which I trust will be treasured up in the memory of all who witnessed it.’
Maps
Map of Scotland showing places connected with Cochrane’s domestic life and the places he visited during his cruises in the Thetis and the Arab.
Map of the English Channel and Atlantic coast of France showing the ports, naval bases and anchorages associated with Cochrane’s various cruises.
Map of the Mediterranean showing naval bases and anchorages as well as the harbours and coastal towns attacked by the Speedy and the Imperieuse.
A plan of the fireship attack on the French fleet anchored in Aix Roads on the evening of 11 April 1809. The time is around 9 p.m. The explosion vessels are approaching the floating boom and are followed by the fireships.
A plan of Aix Roads showing the British ships attacking the grounded French ships around 4 p.m. on 12 April 1809. Cochrane’s Imperieuse has been joined by the bomb vessel Aetna, a brig sloop, three gun brigs, five frigates and two 74-gun ships.
A map of South America showing the places associated with Cochrane’s cruises and naval campaigns.
Lord Cochrane as a civilian in his early forties before he departed for South America. Engraving published in 1819 after a picture by W. Walton.
Appendix
Cutaway drawing of Cochrane’s frigate Imperieuse of 38 guns, showing internal fittings and stores. Drawn by John Batchelor and based on the plans in the National Maritime Museum.
Glossary
aft, after Situated at the back or stern part of a vessel.
block A pulley containing one, two or more sheaves, used to increase the power applied to ropes.
block and tackle An arrangement of pulleys and ropes used to raise heavy loads, and to increase the purchase on ropes used for the running rigging.
boatswain, or bosun The warrant officer in charge of sails, rigging, anchors and associated gear.
bomb, bomb vessel A warship which carried one or two heavy mortars for shore bombardment.
bombarde French term for a bomb vessel.
bowsprit A heavy spar pointing forward from the stem or front of the vessel.
brace A rope used to control the horizontal movement of a square-sailed yard.
brig A two-masted vessel, fully square-rigged on both masts, with a fore-and-aft sail on the lower part of the mainmast.
brigantine A two-masted vessel having a fully square-rigged foremast and a fore-and-aft rigged mainmast with squaresails on the main topmast.
broadside The simultaneous firing of all the guns on one side of a ship.
bulkhead A vertical partition inside a ship.
bumboat A small boat used to bring out and sell fruit, vegetables and other produce to the sailors on ships anchored some distance from the shore.
cable A measure of distance, 100 fathoms (200 yards). Also refers to any large rope such as the rope used for anchoring a ship.
caulk To seal the gaps between the planks with oakum and pitch.
collier A sturdy, flat-bottomed sailing vessel for carrying coal.
colours The flag
s worn by a vessel to show her nationality.
companionway The staircase or ladder down to a cabin or the lower deck; or the cover or protection built over the head of the staircase or ladder leading below.
corvette A type of French warship, usually a small ship of 20 to 24 guns or a ship sloop of 14 to 18 guns.
cutter A small, one-masted vessel rigged with a fore-and-aft mainsail, foresail and jib. In the eighteenth century a cutter usually had a square topsail as well.
deadeye A round wooden block with three holes for extending the shrouds.
East Indiaman A large ship engaged in trade with the East Indies.
ensign The national flag usually flown by ships at or near the stern of the vessel.
fathom A measure of six feet, used to describe the depth of water.
felucca A small, two-masted vessel of the Mediterranean with lateen sails on both masts.
flagship A ship commanded by an admiral and flying the admiral’s distinguishing flag.
flag captain The captain of a ship carrying an admiral and flying his flag. (Captain Hardy was Nelson’s flag captain on board HMS Victory at the Battle of Trafalgar).
fore Situated in front; the front part of a vessel at the bow.
fore-and-aft At bow and stern; backwards and forwards or along the length of the ship.
fore-and-aft rig Having mainly fore-and-aft sails, i.e. sails set lengthwise (and not at right-angles to the ship’s hull, as is the case with square-rigged sails).
Forecastle/fo’c’s’le The short deck built over the fore part of the main deck; the forward part of a ship where the sailors lived.
foremast The mast at the front of the vessel.
foretop A platform at the head of the lower foremast serving to spread the topmast rigging and provide a place for sailors working aloft.
frigate A fast cruising warship, less heavily armed than a ship of the line. Most frigates were fifth and sixth rates with between 40 and 20 guns.
galley 1. The ship’s kitchen. 2. A notably fast type of boat under oar and sail, originally used by smugglers and later adopted for anti-smuggling patrols. Was also used as a ship’s boat for raiding parties on enemy coasts.
galliot A small trading vessel, usually sprit-rigged.
gig A light, clinker-built boat carried by a warship and often favoured by captains for their own use.
grape, grapeshot Anti-personnel shot made up of small balls secured in a cylindrical canvas bag which flew apart on firing, scattering the shot over a wide area.
gunwale The upper planking along the sides of the vessel.
halyard A rope for raising and lowering a sail or yard.
heave to (past tense: hove to) To check the course of a vessel and bring her to a standstill by heading her into the wind and backing some of the sails.
hawser A large rope or a small cable.
helm The tiller or wheel which controls the rudder and enables a vessel to be steered.
hulk An old ship taken out of service and moored in harbour. Hulks were used as prison ships, convict ships, hospitals, floating barracks and receiving ships for pressed men.
jury rig A makeshift arrangement of masts, yards and sails used to replace those damaged by storm or enemy action.
lateen sail A triangular sail attached to a long yard with the foot of the sail made fast on deck and the middle of the yard hoisted so that it is at a slanting, oblique angle to the mast.
larboard An old word for port (the left side of a vessel facing forward) which was preferred for helm orders. It was abandoned in 1844.
league A measure of distance: 5 km (3 miles).
lee The side or direction away from the wind, or downwind.
lee shore The shore on to which the wind is blowing; a hazardous shore for a sailing vessel particularly in strong or gale-force winds.
log, logbook A journal or diary which recorded the ship’s position, speed and course, with notes on the wind direction, weather, sail changes, flag signals and other vessels met en route. The official log-book in a British warship was kept by the ship’s master (navigator) but the captain and lieutenants also kept logbooks and so did the midshipmen.
longboat The largest and heaviest boat carried by a warship and used for laying out anchors and carrying water casks and other heavy loads.
lugger A vessel rigged with one or more fore-and-aft lugsails. Each sail is set on a yard, of which about one-third is on the fore side of the mast.
mainmast 1. The mast at the centre of the ship or vessel, always the largest in square-rigged ships. 2. The name of the first and lowest section of the mainmast in a square-rigged ship; the others are the maintopmast, main-topgallant mast and main royalmast.
mainsheet The rope at the lower corner of the mainsail for regulating its position.
man-of-war An armed ship belonging to the navy of a country.
mizzenmast The mast at the stern or back of a vessel.
muster book A book containing the names of the ship’s company.
pendant (pronounced ‘pennant’) The term can be used for any long tapering flag. The commissioning pendant of a naval ship was a very long flag like a streamer flown from the main masthead and it distinguished a warship in commission from a merchant ship.
pennant see
pendant polacre A three-masted vessel with square sails on the main and mizzen masts and a large lateen sail on the foremast.
poop deck The aftermost and highest deck of a ship.
port The left side of a vessel facing forward.
press gang A group of men led by an officer who were employed to round up men for service in the Royal Navy.
privateer A privately owned warship licensed by a letter of marque to capture enemy shipping for profit.
prize A ship or smaller vessel captured from the enemy in time of war.
quarter The side of a ship towards the stern.
quarterdeck A deck above the main deck which stretched from the stern to about halfway along the length of the ship. It was from this deck that the captain and officers controlled the ship.
quarter gallery A covered gallery with windows that projected from the side of the ship at the stern, used as a lavatory or toilet by the captain and officers.
rate (as in first-rate, second-rate, etc.) Warships were grouped into six different categories according to the number of guns they carried. In the eighteenth century a first-rate ship had 100 guns, a second-rate ship had 90 guns, a third-rate had 80, 74 or 64 guns, a fourth-rate had between 64 and 50 guns, a fifth-rate had between 44 and 32 guns, and a sixth-rate had between 28 and 20 guns.
reef To reduce the area of a sail by rolling it up or bundling part of it and securing that part with short lines called reef-points.
road, roadstead An open anchorage.
running rigging Ropes which run through blocks or are moved in any way to operate the sails and gear of a vessel – as distinct from
standing rigging. schooner A two-masted vessel, fore-and-aft rigged on both masts. Some vessels had square topsails on the foremast or on both topmasts.
scuppers Holes in a ship’s side through which water could drain off from the deck.
settee A small sailing vessel, usually single-masted, with a settee sail which was similar to the triangular lateen sail but with a short luff at the forward end of the sail.
sheet A rope made fast to the lower corner or corners of a sail to control its position.
sheer hulk A vessel, usually an old ship, fitted with a pair of sheer legs (two large spars forming an ‘A frame’) to hoist masts in and out of vessels; a floating crane.
ship 1. A vessel with three or more masts and fully square-rigged throughout. 2. The term is also used to describe any large sea-going vessel.
ship of the line A warship large enough to take her place in the line of battle.
In the late eighteenth century this usually ranged from third-rate ships of between 64 and 80 guns up to first-rate ships of 100 guns or more.
> shrouds The set of ropes forming part of the standing rigging and supporting the mast or topmast.
sloop 1. A vessel having one fore-and-aft rigged mast with mainsail and a single foresail. 2. In the Royal Navy any ship or vessel commanded by an officer with the rank of master and commander, usually rigged as a ship or brig with 16 to 18 guns.
spar A stout wooden pole used for the mast or yard of a sailing vessel.
spring A rope or hawser used on an anchored ship to enable her to swing round and bring her broadside to bear on an enemy. The rope led from the capstan out of the stern of the ship and was made fast some way along the anchor cable.
square-rigged The principal sails set at right angles to the length of the ship and extended by horizontal yards slung to the mast (as opposed to fore-and-aft rigged).
Cochrane the Dauntless Page 39