Irish republicans would maintain that their Republic had been liquidated in like manner by the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921. In their view, the treaty was invalid because the Irish delegates had been browbeaten into submission by the British threat of full-scale war, and they were not mistaken in their belief that browbeating had been applied. The Free Staters and their friends, in contrast, argued that the content of the treaty was not so drastic, and that the charge of ‘liquidating the Republic’ hid a more complicated reality. The facts are on their side. Though the name and form of the ‘Republic’ were indeed surrendered under pressure, the substance of a separate, self-governing Irish state was upheld. Despite everything, the treaty did not re-incorporate Ireland into the United Kingdom, and it provided the foundations on which the Irish Republic was subsequently constructed.
There remains a category which, for want of something more precise, may be described as the political counterpart of infant mortality. In order to survive, newborn states need to possess a set of viable internal organs, including a functioning executive, a defence force, a revenue system and a diplomatic service. If they possess none of these things, they lack the means to sustain an autonomous existence, and they perish before they can breathe and flourish. The ‘Republic of One Day’ in Carpatho-Ukraine illustrates the point nicely. Since its executive body did nothing other than to declare its independence, it may be said to have been stillborn.
Other young states succumb after a brief struggle. No state is as vulnerable as in the very early days of its existence, and the vultures begin to hover as soon as the infant takes its first breath. Many such infants falter because they are incapable of independent sustenance if the parent’s life support is withdrawn. All the Napoleonic creations, such as the Kingdom of Etruria, belong to this category. Others collapse because the political, military or economic environment is too hostile. Several can be found in the brief outline of Soviet history sketched in Chapter 15. One such state would be Kerensky’s would-be constitutional and republican Russia, which had overthrown the tsar’s government in February 1917 but whose provisional government was snuffed out by the Bolsheviks after only eight months. Another might be the Byelorussian National Republic of 1918 or the Ukrainian National Republic in the same era. A third would be the homeland of the Soviet Union’s founder, the Republic of Georgia, which held out for three years in its first incarnation from 1918 to 1921, and which is again gasping for air nearly ninety years later in the hostile environment of Russia’s ‘near abroad’.33
Successful statehood, in fact, is a rare blessing. It requires health and vigour, good fortune, benevolent neighbours and a sense of purpose to aid growth and to reach maturity. All the best-known polities in history have passed through this test of infancy, and many have lived to a grand old age. Those which failed the test have perished without making their mark. In the chronicles of bodies politic, as in the human condition in general, this has been the way of the world since time immemorial.
From the time of the ancient Greeks, and no doubt longer, the death of a monarch entailed a grand funeral, an oration, a burial or a burning pyre, an epitaph on the tomb and an obituary. Alaric’s committal to the Busento was but a specific variant to normal practice. The Anglo-Saxons and Vikings often buried their chieftain in his ship, to mark the end of his rule and the start of a new voyage either to Valhalla or to Heaven:
Scyld was still a strong man when his time came
And he passed over into Our Lord’s keeping.
His warrior band did what he bade them
When he laid down the law among the Danes.
They shouldered him out to the sea’s flood,
the chief they revered who had ruled them.
A ring-necked prow rode in the harbour,
clad with ice, its cables tightening.
They stretched their beloved lord in the boat,
laid out amidships by the mast,
the great ring-giver … The treasure was massed
on top of him: it would travel far
on out into the sway of the ocean …
And they set a gold standard up
high above his head and let him drift
to wind and tide, bewailing him
and mourning their loss. No man can tell,
no wise man in the hall or weathered veteran
knows for certain who salvaged that load.34
Generally speaking, the death of a ship of state was not so fêted, though the occasional fine obituary has been penned. William Wordsworth mourned the passing of a state far older than the Kingdom of Etruria, but another of those which were snuffed out by a Napoleonic whim:
Once did she hold the gorgeous East in fee;
And was the safeguard of the West: the worth
Of Venice did not fall beneath her birth,
Venice, the eldest Child of Liberty.
She was a maiden City, bright and free;
No guile seduced, no force could violate;
And, when she took unto herself a Mate,
She must espouse the everlasting Sea.
And what if she had seen those glories fade,
Those titles vanish, and that strength decay;
Yet shall some tribute of regret be paid
When her long life hath reached its final day:
Men are we, and must grieve when even the Shade
Of that which once was great is passed away.35
Notes
INTRODUCTION
1. John Hunt, The Ascent of Everest (London, 1953); R. Mantovani, Everest: The History of the Himalayan Giant (Shrewsbury, 1997); J. R. Smith, Everest: The Man and the Mountain (Caithness, 1999). 2. T. Gwynn Jones, Geiriadur: Cymraeg–Saesneg a Saesneg–Cymraeg (Cardiff, 1953). 3. William Johnson Cory (1823–92), after Callimachus (third century BC). 4. Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Everyman edn., 6 vols. (London, 1910); The Autobiography of Edward Gibbon (London, 1910). 5. Norman Davies, The Isles: A History (London, 1999). 6. ‘The Day Thou gavest Lord is ended’ (1870), words by John Ellerton, melody of ‘St Clement’ by Clement Scholefield. 7. ‘Nazi Gold: Publishing the Third Reich’, BBC Radio 4, 17 March 2011. 8. A. J. P. Taylor, The Struggle for Mastery in Europe (Oxford, 1954); English History, 1914–45 (Oxford, 1965); The Habsburg Monarchy, 1809–1918 (London, 1948); Bismarck: The Man and the Statesman (London, 1955); The Course of German History (London, 1945); The Origins of the Second World War (London, 1961); etc. 9. H. Trevor-Roper, Historical Essays (London, 1957), foreword, quoted by Adam Sisman, Hugh Trevor-Roper: The Biography (London, 2010), p. 293. 10. Ibid., pp. 168, 294. 11. See R. B. Cunninghame Graham, A Vanished Arcadia: Some Account of the Jesuits in Paraguay, 1607–1767 (London, 1901); B. L. Putnam Weale, The Vanished Empire (London, 1920), on China; Mabel Cabot, Vanished Kingdoms: A Woman Explorer in Tibet, China, and Mongolia, 1921–25 (New York, 2003); or Oriental Institute Museum, Chicago, Vanished Kingdoms of the Nile: The Rediscovery of Nubia. An Exhibition (Chicago, 1995). 12. Murry Hope, Atlantis: Myth or Reality? (London, 1991); R. Vidal-Naquet, The Atlantis Story: A Short History of Plato’s Myth (Exeter, 2007). 13. www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/archaeology/bethsaida.htm. See also P. R. Davies, In Search of Ancient Israel (Sheffield, 1992). 14. 2 Samuel 13: 37. 15. Thomas Gray, ‘Elegy Written in a Country Church-yard’ (1751). 16. John Keats, ‘La Belle Dame Sans Merci’ (1819). 17. Percy Bysshe Shelley, ‘Ozymandias’ (1818). Rameses II, pharaoh of the XIXth dynasty, was known to the Greeks as Ozymandias. His statue, ‘the Younger Memnon’, which inspired Shelley, is in the British Museum. 18. Horace, Odes, book I, ode 14, lines 1–4. 19. From Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, ‘The Building of the Ship’ (1849). 20. W. S. Churchill, The Second World War, vol. 3: The Grand Alliance (London, 1950), p. 24.
CHAPTER 1. TOLOSA
Bibliographical Note. Until recently, the Visigoths have not been treated favourably by historians. The decline of the Roman Empire in the West was conventionally viewed from the imperial perspective and through Lati
n sources. And the transitional fifth century did not get much coverage. The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 1 (Cambridge, 2005), for example, does not address the period before AD 500. Two relevant collections of academic studies are available in English: P. Heather (ed.), The Visigoths from the Migration Period to the Seventh Century: An Ethnographic Perspective (Woodbridge, 1999), and A. Ferreiro (ed.), The Visigoths: Studies in Culture and Society (Leiden, 1999). A synthesis of the subject has recently been published in German: Gerd Kampers, Geschichte der Westgoten (Paderborn, 2008). A chapter on ‘The First Gothic Successor State’ is well hidden in Peter Heather’s The Goths (Oxford, 1996), pp. 181–215.
I
1. See www.lescommunes.com/communie-vouille-86294.html (2009). See also 15e Centenaire de la Bataille de Vouillé, 507–2007, foreword by Ségolène Royal (Poitiers, 2007), p. 29. 2. www.507vouillelabataille.com (2008).
II
3. After J. B. Bury, The History of the Later Roman Empire, 395–800 (London, 1889), vol. 1, ch. 6. 4. See H. Wolfram, History of the Goths (Berkeley, 1998); P. Heather, ‘The Fourth Century Goths’, in P. Heather and J. Matthews, The Goths in the 4th Century (London, 1991), pp. 51–94. 5. Themistius, Orations, quoted by Heather, and Matthews, The Goths in the 4th Century, p. 47. 6. Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Everyman edn., 6 vols. (London, 1911), ch. 31. 7. Marcel Brion, Alaric the Goth (London, 1932). 8. Paulus Orosius (d. 418), Historia Adversos Paganos, quoted Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 31. 9. See R. Mathisen and H. Sivan, ‘Forging a New Identity: The Kingdom of Toulouse and the Frontiers of Visigothic Aquitaine, 418–507’, in Ferreiro, The Visigoths, pp. 1–62. 10. Septimania, ‘the province of the Seven Cities’ on the Mediterranean coast, was made up of the modern districts of Béziers, Elne, Agde, Narbonne, Lodève, Maguelonne and Nîmes. 11. See Mathisen and Sivan, ‘Forging a New Identity’. 12. St Jerome (342–420), translator of the Latin Vulgate Bible. His Chronicle built on the earlier work of St Eusebius and became the basic source on the history of the early Christian Church. See also L. Valentin, St Prosper d’Aquitaine (Paris, 1900). 13. E. A. Thompson, The Huns (Oxford, 1999); Christopher Kelly, Attila the Hun: Barbarian Terror and the Fall of the Roman Empire (London, 2008). 14. Sidonius Apollinaris, Letters, trans. O. M. Dalton (Oxford, 1915). 15. K. Zeumer (ed.), Leges Visigothorum Antiquiores (Hanover, 1894). 16. Pablo C. Diaz, ‘Toulouse: The Shadow of the Roman Empire’, in Heather, The Visigoths, pp. 330 ff. 17. See Ian Wood, in Kathleen Mitchell and Ian Wood (eds.), The World of Gregory of Tours (Leiden, 2002). 18. T. Hodgkin, Theodoric the Goth: The Barbarian Champion of Civilization (London, 1923). 19. See J. Gaudemet, ‘Bréviaire d’Alaric’, in Jean Leclant (ed.), Dictionnaire de ll’antiquité (Paris, 2005). 20. See Edward James, The Franks (Oxford, 1998). 21. Gregory of Tours, Historia Francorum, 2.35; Latin text at www.thelatinlibrary.com/gregorytours/gregorytours2.shtml; a translation is available at www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html. 22. Ibid., 2.37. 23. Ian Wood, in Rosamund McKitterick and Roland Quinault (eds.), Gibbon and Empire (Cambridge, 1997). 24. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. 38. 25. See John Moorehead, Justinian (London, 1994). 26. See B. Young, ‘The Missing Archaeology of the Visigoths’, in The Battle of Vouillé: Symposium Commemorating the 1500th Anniversary, University of Indiana at Urbana Champaign, 12 April 2007; http://theheroicage.blogspot.com/2007_04_01_archive.html.
III
27. ‘La Bataille de Voulon’, http://voulon.fr/histoire_42.htm (2010). 28. www.jacobins.mairie-toulouse.fr/patrhist/edifices/menu/listeed_.htm (2010); www.visite.org/aquitaine/fr/patrimoine.php (2010). 29. A. Ferreiro, The Visigoths in Gaul and Spain, ad 418–711: A Bibliography (Leiden, 1998). 30. ‘Clôitres et monastères disparus de Toulouse’, http://pedagogie.ac-toulouse.fr/culture/religieux/clodaurade.htm (2010). 31. www.corbieresweb.com/montagne-d-alaric (2010). 32. Henry Lincoln, The Holy Place: Decoding the Mystery of Rennes-le-Château (Moreton-in-Marsh, 2005); www.rennes-le-chateau-archive.com/ (2010). 33. Henri Boudet, La Vraie Langue celtique et le cromlech de Rennes-les-Bains (Carcassonne, 1886; Nîmes, 1999). 34. http://redpill.dailygrail.com/wiki/rennes_le_chateau (2010); http://dreamscape.com/morgana/metis.htm (2010); www.magie-arcadie.be/rennes-le-chateau.htm (2010). 35. Gérard de Sède, L’Or de Rennes, ou La vie insolite de Bérenger Saunière (Paris, 1967); Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln, The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail (London, 1982, 2005); R. Andrews and P. Schellenberger, The Tomb of God (London, 1996); Lynn Picknett and Clive Prince, The Templar Revelation: Secret Guardians of the True Identity of Christ (London, 1997, 2007); Christian Doumergue, Rennes-le-Château, le grand héritage (Nîmes, 1997); Dan Brown, The Da Vinci Code: A Novel (London, 2003). 36. See Joseph O’Callaghan, A History of Mediaeval Spain (Ithaca, NY, 1975), ch. 1, ‘The Visigothic Kingdom’; Harold Livermore, Twilight of the Goths: The Rise and Fall of the Kingdom of Toledo, 575–711 (Bristol, 2006). 37. D. A. Pharies, A Brief History of the Spanish Language (Chicago, 2007). 38. http://rickmk.com/rmk/pray/got-our.html (2010). 39. V. Kouznetsov, Les Alains: cavaliers des steppes, seigneurs du Caucase (Paris, 1997). 40. August von Platen (1796–1835), ‘Das Grab in Busento’ (1820).
CHAPTER 2. ALT CLUD
Bibliographical Note. There is no dedicated monograph in English on this subject, and only a handful of scattered academic articles such as Alan Macquarrie, ‘The Kings of Strathclyde’, in A. Grant and K. Stringer (eds.), Mediaeval Scotland: Crown, Lordship and Community (Edinburgh, 1993), pp. 1–20, or, for the later period, Davitt Broun, ‘The Welsh Identity of the Kingdom of Strathclyde, 900–1100’, Innes Review, 55 (2004), pp. 111–80. Growing piles of information, of variable reliablility, are available on a rising tide of internet sites, including www.templum.freeserve.co.uk/history/strathclyde/localkings.htm and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/list_of_kings_of_strathclyde. The background is beautifully presented by Alistair Moffat, Before Scotland: The Story of Scotland before History (London, 2005), especially ch. 7, ‘The Last of the British’.
I
1. A panoramic view of the Rock can be seen at www.flickr.com/photos/ccgd/5512793/. Also Dumbarton Rock, photo by John Crae; www.clydesite.co.uk/articles/upperriver.asp. 2. R. Jeffrey and I. Watson, Doon the Watter: A Century of Holidays on the Clyde, 2 vols. (Edinburgh, 1999). 3. Iain McCrorie, The Royal Road to the Isles (Glasgow, 2001); F. M. Walker, Song of the Clyde: A History of Clyde Shipbuilding (Edinburgh, 2001); see also www.shipsofcalmac.co.uk/history_timeline.asp. 4. www.traditionalmusic.co.uk/folk-song-lyrics/roamin_in_the_gloamin_.htm; see also Gordon Irving, Great Scot: The Life Story of Sir Harry Lauder (London, 1968). 5. Quoted in www.turningwood.fsnet.co.uk/dumbarton.html (2004); www.undiscovered-scotland.co.uk/dumbarton/dumbartoncastle (2008); see also Iain MacIvor, Dumbarton Castle (Edinburgh, 2003). 6. See Brian Lavery, ‘The British Government and the American Polaris Base on the Clyde’, Journal of Martime Research (Sep. 2001). 7. www.whiskymag.com/whisky/brand/ballantine_s (2004); www.ballantines.com. 8. Incorporated 1765, see www.dunbartonnh.org.
II
9. T. Mommsen, ‘Petrarch’s Conception of the Dark Ages’, Speculum, 17/2 (1942), pp. 226–42. 10. K. H. Schmidt, ‘Insular Celtic: P and Q Celtic’, in M. J. Ball and J. Fife (eds.), The Celtic Languages (London, 1993); Paul Russell, An Introduction to the Celtic Languages (London, 1995). 11. W. F. Skene, The Four Ancient Books of Wales, 2 vols. (Edinburgh, 1868). 12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbric_language (2008). Most recently, and after the completion of the present essay, a Cumbric Revival Community has been launched on the Internet at www.cumbricrevival.com. 13. See Peter Brown, The Rise of Western Christendom (Oxford, 2003). 14. Elizabeth Sutherland, In Search of the Picts: A Celtic Dark Age Nation (London, 1994). 15. Possibly confused with another Alauna, south of Hadrian’s Wall, usually located at modern Maryport (Cumbria). See also I. A. Richmond, ‘Ancient Geographical Sources for Britain North of the Cheviot’, in his Roman and Native in North Britain (Edinburgh, 1958); G. W. S. Barrow, ‘The Tribes of North Britain Revisited’, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries
of Scotland, 119 (1989), pp. 161–3. 16. In July 2008, the Antonine Wall was adopted by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. See www.antonineway.com. 17. See Michael Jones, The End of Roman Britain (Ithaca, NY, 1996). 18. Peniarth MS 45, National Library of Wales: translated online at http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/bonedd.html (2010). 19. ‘Yr Hen Ogledd’, in John Koch (ed.), Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclo-pedia (Oxford, 2006). 20. C. T. Greenhead, quoted in Moffat, Before Scotland, p. 305. 21. Old Kilpatrick, West Dunbartonshire, which is situated on the Clyde at the western end of the Antonine Wall. See www.rcag.org.uk/parishes_st.patricks_oldkilpatrick.htm. 22. Macquarrie, ‘The Kings of Strathclyde’, p. 4, and A. Boyle, ‘The Birthplace of St. Patrick’, Scottish Historical Review, 60 (1981). Boyle’s identification of Fintry near Old Kilpatrick with the Ventre of Miurchu’s Vita sancti Patricii (seventh century) and with W. J. Watson’s Venn tref or ‘White House’ is rejected, somewhat unconvincingly, on the grounds that Kilpatrick is supposedly a Gaelic name of much later vintage; W. J. Watson, The History of Celtic Place-names of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1993). See J. B. Bury, The Life of St Patrick and his Place in History (London, 1905). 23. St Patrick, ‘Letter to Coroticus’, in R. P. C. Hanson, The Life and Writings of the Historical Saint Patrick (New York, 1983), pp. 58–73. 24. Daphne Brooke, The Search for St Ninian (Whithorn, 1993). 25. Leslie Alcock, ‘A Multi-Disciplinary Chronology for Alt Clut, Castle Rock, Dumbarton’, Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland (1975–6), p. 105. 26. See Kathleen Hughes, ‘The Welsh Latin Chronicles: Annales Cambriae and Related Texts’, in Hughes, Celtic Britain in the Early Middle Ages: Studies in Scottish and Welsh Sources (Woodbridge, 1980), pp. 67–85. 27. Nennius, Historia Brittonum (‘A History of the Britons’), ed. D. Dumville (Cambridge, 1985). 28. Moffat, Before Scotland, p. 320. 29. Adamnan, Life of St Columba, ed. W. Reeves (Lampeter, 1988); Adamnan of Iona, Life of St Columba, trans. R. Sharpe (London, 1995). 30. http://www.clanarthur.com (2008); http://www.scottishweb.net/…clans-clanmacarthur/ (2010). 31. At Strathblane. In Arthur and the Lost Kingdoms (London, 1999), Alistair Moffat argues for King Arthur’s base to have been located at Roxburgh Castle in the Borders. 32. John Bruce, History of the Parish of West or Old Kilpatrick and of the Church and Certain Lands in the Parish of East or New Kilpatrick (Glasgow, 1893); Joseph Irving, History of Dumbartonshire (Dumbarton, 1860). 33. James Knight, Glasgow and Strathclyde (London, 1930). The references to Bruce, Irving, Knight and others are at www.templum.freeserve.co.uk/history/strathclyde/arthur.htm. 34. The Life is by Jocelyn of Furness. See John Glass, The Mission of St Mungo (Twickenham, 2007). 35. ‘The University of Glasgow Story’ at www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk/coat-of-arms/. 36. See www.catholicireland.net/church-a-bible/church/january-saints/1226-14-st-kentigern-or-mungo. Many versions of the legend exist. 37. Adamnan, Life of St Columba, ch. 8. See also ‘Rhydderch Hael’, www.celtnet.org.uk/gods_rh/rhydderch.htm. 38. See M. Lapidge and D. Dumville, Gildas: New Approaches (Woodbridge, 1984). 39. A. Marette-Crosby, The Foundations of Christian England: Augustine of Canterbury and his Impact (York, 1997). 40. J. T. Koch (ed.), The Gododdin of Aneirin: Text and Context from Dark-Age North Britain (Cardiff, 1997), p. 52. 41. Ibid., pp. 10–11. 42. Ibid., pp. 12–13. 43. From ‘The Stanzas of the Graves’, in The Black Book of Carmarthen, http://www.celtic-twilight.com/camelot/poetry/yrhengerdd/englynion_y_beddau.htm. (2008). 44. Moffat, Before Scotland, p. 326. 45. Bede, Ecclesiastical History, book 4, ch. 26. 46. James Fraser, The Pictish Conquest: The Battle of Dunnichen 685 and the Birth of Scotland (Stroud, 2006). 47. Moffat, Before Scotland, pp. 328–9. 48. See W. D. Simpson, The Early Christian Monuments at Aberlemno, Angus (Edinburgh, 1969). 49. P. C. Bartrum (trans.), Early Welsh Genealogical Tracts (Cardiff, 1966): also online at http://kmatthews.org.uk/history/harleian_genealogies/5.html. 50. ‘Pittin the mither tongue online’, www.scots-online.org (2010). 51. Macquarrie, ‘The Kings of Strathclyde’, p. 1. 52. See John Bannerman, Studies in the History of Dalriada (Edinburgh, 1974). 53. N. A. M. Rodgers, The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain, 660–1649 (London, 1997), p. 5. 54. From Bede, book 1, chs. 1, 12, quoted in Alcock, ‘A Multi-Disciplinary Chronology for Alt Clut’, pp. 104–5. 55. Brut y Tywysogion (‘Chronicle of the Princes’), ed. Revd John Williams ab Ithel (London, 1860), pp. 6–7. 56. Otherwise Teudibar map Beli, see www.earlybritishkingdoms.com/lists/strathclyde.html. 57. N. Aitchison, Scotland’s Stone of Destiny: Myth, History and Nationhood (Stroud, 2000). 58. Macquarrie, ‘The Kings of Strathclyde’, pp. 12, 18. 59. Brut y Tywysogion, pp. 14–15; Nennius: British History and the Welsh Annals, ed. J. Morris (London, 1980), pp. 48, 89; The Annales Cambriae: Texts A–C in Parallel, ed. D. Dumville (Cambridge, 2002); The Annals of Ulster, quoted by Alcock, ‘A Multi-Disciplinary Chronology for Alt Clut’, p. 106. 60. Text reconstructed by author. 61. A. A. M. Duncan, Scotland: The Making of the Kingdom (Edinburgh, 1995), p. 90. 62. Macquarrie, ‘The Kings of Strathclyde’, p. 12. 63. Ibid., pp. 12–13. 64. See John Davies, A History of Wales (London, 1993), pp. 62 ff. 65. Norman Davies, The Isles: A History (London, 1999), pp. 216–17. 66. Brut y Tywysogion, pp. 20–21. 67. See Broun, ‘The Welsh Identity of the Kingdom of Strathclyde’. 68. See e.g. Nicholas Aitchison, Macbeth: Man and Myth (Stroud, 1999). 69. The Chronicle of John of Worcester, ed. R. Darlington and P. McGurk (Oxford, 1998). 70. A. A. M. Duncan, Kingship of the Scots, 842–1292 (Edinburgh, 2002), pp. 37–41. 71. Cynthia Nevile, Native Lordship in Mediaeval Scotland: The Earldoms of Strathearn and Lennox, 1140–1365 (Portland and Dublin, 2005). 72. Michael, bishop of Glasgow. According to English sources, two earlier bishops of Glasgow were appointed by the archbishops of York. Bishop Magsuen (fl. 1055–60) may well have owed his see to the conquest of Earl Siward. 73. A. Dooley and H. Roe, Tales of the Elders of Ireland (Oxford, 1998), p. 13. 74. F. Mort, Renfrewshire (Cambridge, 1912). 75. A. A. M. Duncan, ‘William, Son of Alan Wallace: The Documents’, in J. Cowan (ed.), The Wallace Book (Edinburgh, 2007), pp. 42–63. 76. Fiona Watson, ‘Sir William Wallace: What We Do – and Don’t Know’, in Cowan, The Wallace Book, p. 27. 77. J. C. Borland, William Wallace: His Birthplace and Family Connections (Kilmarnock, 1999). 78. James A. Mackay, William Wallace: Brave Heart (Edinburgh, 1996). 79. George Fraser Black, The Surnames of Scotland: Their Origin, Meaning and History (New York, 1946). 80. See also M. Stead and A. Young, In the Steps of William Wallace (London, 2002). 81. Alistair Moffat, The Highland Clans (London, 2010), p. 151.
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