I
1. www.perpignan.cci.fr/2-13674-accueil.php (2007). 2. ‘Office de Tourisme de la Ville de Perpignan’, www.mairie-perpignan.fr (2007). 3. http://france-for-visitors.com/pyrenees/roussillon/perpignan.html (2007). 4. http://www.usap.com (2010). 5. Marcel Durliat, L’Histoire du Roussillon (Paris, 1962), pp. 6, 40. 6. http://www.estivales.com (2010). 7. http://www.villagesdefrance.free.fr (2010). 8. Horace Chauvet, Folklore du Roussillon (Perpignan, 1943). 9. Festival of Amélie-les-Bains: http://www.kadmusarts/festivals/932.htm (2010). 10. Alicia Marcet i Juncosa, Abrégé d’histoire des terres catalanes du nord, traduction du catalan (Canet, 1994). 11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/el_gran_carlemany (2010). See also A. Degage and A. Duro i Arajol, L’Andorre (Paris, 1998).
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12. The Song of Roland, trans. Glyn Burgess (London, 1990), lines 1–9. 13. Barton Sholod, ‘The Formation of a Spanish March’, in his Charlemagne in Spain: The Cultural Legacy of Roncesvalles (Geneva, 1966), pp. 44 ff. 14. Ralph Giesey, If Not, Not: The Oath of the Aragonese and the Legendary Laws of Sobrarbe (Princeton, 1968). 15. A. Ferreiro, ‘The Siege of Barbastro, 1064–5: A Re-assessment’, Journal of Medieval History, 9/2 (1983), pp. 129–44. 16. Ibn Bassam, quoted by Christopher Dawson, ‘The Origins of the Romantic Tradition’, in his Mediaeval Religion and Other Essays (London, 1934), p. 146. 17. Gerald Bond (ed. and trans.), The Poetry of William VII, Count of Poitiers, and IX Duke of Aquitaine (New York, 1982). 18. Richard Fletcher, The Quest for El Cid (Oxford, 1991); David Nicolle, El Cid and the Reconquista (London, 1988); Ramón Pidal, The Cid and his Spain (London, 1924). 19. The Poem of the Cid: A New Critical Edition, ed. Ian Michael, trans. Rita Hamilton and Janet Perry (Manchester, 1975), ll. 1 ff. 20. Ibid., ll. 955–61 ff. See T. Montgomery, ‘The Cid and the Count of Barcelona’, Hispanic Review, 30/1 (1962), pp. 1–11. 21. R. W. Southern, The Making of the Middle Ages (London, 1953), p. 129. 22. George Beech, The Brief Eminence and Doomed Fall of Islamic Saragossa (Zaragoza, 2008). See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/taifa_of_zaragoza (2008). 23. J. Boutière and A. H. Schutz (eds.), Biographies des troubadours (Paris, 1964). 24. From the Provençal poem Sainte Foy, quoted by Chaytor, History of Aragon and Catalonia, ch. 4. See also H. J. Chaytor, The Provençal Chanson de Geste (London, 1946). 25. Dawson, Mediaeval Religion and Other Essays, pp. 125, 128. 26. John Shideler, A Medieval Catalan Noble Family: The Montcadas, 1000–1230 (Berkeley, 1983). 27. Attributed to Ferdinand the Catholic. On Aragonese constitutional matters, see J. M. Mas i Solench, Les Corts a la Corona Catalono-Aragonesa (Barcelona, 1995); Xavier Gil, ‘Parliamentary Life in the Crown of Aragon’, Journal of Early Modern History, 6/4 (2002), pp. 362–95. 28. Georges de Manteyer, La Provence, du premier au douzième siècle (Paris, 1908). 29. E. Le Roy Ladurie, L’Histoire du Languedoc (Paris, 1962). 30. Bernard Reilly, The Kingdom of León-Castilla under King Alfonso VII (Philadelphia, 1998). 31. Southern, The Making of the Middle Ages, pp. 122–7; ‘The Family of the Counts of Barcelona’, Genealogical Table, ibid., p. 125. Count Wilfred is buried at his foundation, Santa Maria di Ripoll. 32. Peter Sahlins, Boundaries: The Making of France and Spain in the Pyrenees (Berkeley, 1989). 33. Norman Davies, Europe: A History (Oxford, 1996), pp. 427–8. 34. Jocelyn Hillgarth, ‘The Problem of a Catalan Mediterranean Empire’, English Historical Review, 90 (1975), pp. 3 ff. 35. J. H. Elliott, The Revolt of the Catalans: A Study in the Decline of Spain, 1598–1640 (Cambridge, 1963), p. 3. See also his ‘A Europe of Composite Monarchies’, Past and Present, 137/1 (1992), pp. 48 ff. 36. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lista_de_reis_d’aragon (Catalan). In the present study, the Aragonese style will be followed, but the Catalan form is equally correct. 37. Pass of Manzana, from The Chronicle of Muntaner, trans. from the Catalan by Lady Goodenough (London, 1921). 38. Philippe III le Hardi, during the ‘Aragonese Crusade’. See Ivan Gobry, Philippe III, fils de Saint Louis (Paris, 2004). 39. The Chronicle of Muntaner, vol. 1, pp. 16–17. 40. K. L. Reyerson, ‘Flight from Prosecution: The Search for Religious Asylum in Mediaeval Montpellier’, French Historical Studies, 17/3 (1992), pp. 602–26. 41. See Y. Baer, A History of the Jews in Christian Spain, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1961). 42. Francesca Español, ‘El salterio y libro de horas de Alfonso el Magnánimo y el cardenal Joan de Casanova 28962 (British Library, Add. 28962)’, Locus Amoenus, 6 (2002–3). 43. Coronation of Alfonso El Benigno, 1328, from, The Chronicle of Muntaner, vol. 2, pp. 722–8. 44. Dawson, Mediaeval Religion and Other Essays, p. 135. 45. John Boswell, The Royal Treasure: Muslim Communities under the Crown of Aragon (New Haven, 1977). 46. Gesta Comitum Barcinonensiam, ed. L. Barrau Dihigo and J. MassÓ i Torrents. (Barcelona, 1925). 47. Ana Isabel Lapeña Paúl, Selección de documentos del monasterio de San Juan de la Peña, 1195–1410 (Zaragoza, 1995), p. 388. 48. Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Barcelona: A Thousand Years of the City’s Past (London, 1991). 49. Susan Rose, ‘Christians, Muslims and Crusaders: Naval Warfare in the Mediterranean at the Time of the Crusades’, in her Medieval Naval Warfare (London, 2002), ch. III. 50. The Chronicle of Muntaner, vol. 1, pp. 50–52; J. A. Robson, ‘The Catalan Fleet and Moorish Sea-power (1337–1344)’, English Historical Review, 74 (1959), pp. 386–408. 51. The Book of Deeds of James I of Aragon: A Translation of the Medieval Catalan Llibre dels Fets, Crusade Texts in Translation, 10, trans. Damian Smith and Helena Buffery (Aldershot, 2003), pp. 78–81. 52. Ibid., p. 84. 53. Ibid., p. 86. 54. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/valencian (2007); see also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/kingdom_of_valencia (2008). 55. R. I. Burns, ‘Muslims in the Thirteenth-Century Realms of Aragon’, in J. Powell (ed.), Muslims under Latin Rule, 1100–1300 (Princeton, 1990). 56. Spain, Dorling Kindersley series (London, 2000), pp. 240–43. 57. J. L. Sotoca García, Los amantes de Teruel: la tradición y la historia (Zaragoza, 1979). 58. Marta VanLandingham, ‘The Domestic Influence of the Queen’, in her Transforming the State: King, Court and Political Culture in the Realms of Aragon (1213–1387) (Leiden, 2002), pp. 187–94. 59. See Chaytor, History of Aragon and Catalonia, ch. 8. 60. Denis Mack Smith, Mediaeval Sicily (London, 1968); Clifford Backman, The Decline and Fall of Medieval Sicily: Politics, Religion and Economy in the Reign of Frederick III, 1296–1337 (Cambridge, 1995). 61. Steven Runciman, The Sicilian Vespers (Cambridge, 1958). 62. Lawrence Mott, Sea Power in the Medieval Mediterranean: The Catalan-Aragonese Fleet in the War of the Sicilian Vespers (Gainesville, Fla., 2003). 63. ‘Roger of Loria’, Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, www.education.yahoo (2011). 64. Michele Amari, History of the War of the Sicilian Vespers (London, 1850), vol. 2, pp. 231–3. 65. Dante Alighieri, Purgatorio, canto III, ll. 114–17 (translation by author). 66. Ibid., canto VII, ll. 70–129. 67. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/category:kings_of_sicily (2008). 68. See Neil Wilson, Malta (London, 2000). 69. The Chronicle of Muntaner, vol. 2, pp. 507–9. 70. K. M. Setton, The Catalan Domination of Athens, 1311–88 (London, 1975). 71. Ibid. 72. David Abulafia, ‘The Aragonese Kingdom of Albania: An Angevin Project of 1311–16’, in B. Arbel (ed.), Intercultural Contacts in the Medieval Mediterranean (London, 1996), pp. 1–13. 73. See Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (London, 1988). 74. Burns, ‘Muslims’, pp. 67 ff. 75. David Abulafia, A Medieval Emporium: The Catalan Kingdom of Majorca (Cambridge, 1994). 76. Ibid. 77. A. L. Isaacs, The Jews of Majorca (London, 1936). 78. E. A. Peers, Ramon Lull: A Biography (London, 1929). 79. The Chronicle of Muntaner, vol. 2, p. 661. 80. Pere III of Catalonia (Pedro IV of Aragon), Chronicle, trans. Mary Hillgarth (Toronto, 1980). 81. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/james_iii_of_majorca (2008). 82. T. N. Bisson, Tormented Voices: Power, Crisis and Humanity in Rural Catalonia, 1140–1200 (Cambridge, Mass., 1998). 83. In his will, Pedro IV had appointed his daughter and only child, Constanza, as his successor. His temerity in this matter was seen by many nobles as a direct threat to their own, more normal practice of male primogeniture. 84. www.1902encyclopedia.com/s/spa/spain-24htm (2010). 85. Pere III (Pedro IV), Chronicle, pp. 431–9. 86. J. N. Hillgarth, ‘The Royal Accounts of the Crown of Aragon’, in her Spain and the Mediterranean in the Later Middle Ages (Aldershot, 2003), study III, p.
15. 87. Josep Brugada i Gutiérrez-Ravé, Nicolau Eimeric (1320–1399) i la polèmica inquisitorial (Barcelona, 1998). 88. Mack Smith, Mediaeval Sicily, ch. VII, ‘The New Feudalism’. 89. Bianca Pitzorno, Vita di Eleonora d’Arborea: principessa medioevale di Sardegna (Brescia, 1984). 90. Eleonora d’Arborea, Carta de Logu (Sassari, 2002, facsimile of the 1805 edn.). 91. VanLandingham, Transforming the State, ‘Introduction’. 92. Ferran Soldevila, Història de Catalunya (Barcelona, 1962). 93. Norman Davies, ‘Xativa’, in Europe: A History, p. 350. 94. VanLandingham, Transforming the State, p. 195. 95. Pedro de Luna, Benedict XIII, antipope, 1394–1423. Ironically, Benedict had supported Ferdinand’s candidacy for the Aragonese throne; J. N. D. Kelly, The Oxford Dictionary of Popes (Oxford, 1986), pp. 232–4. 96. ‘Titles of European Hereditary Monarchs’, Doc. 149, Dec. 1413, www.geo-cities.com/eurprin/aragon.html (2009). 97. Alan Ryder, Alfonso the Magnanimous: King of Aragon, Naples and Sicily (Oxford, 1990). 98. Paul Arrighi, Histoire de la Corse (Paris, 1966); M.-A. Ceccaldi, Histoire de la Corse, 1464–1560 (Ajaccio, 2006). 99. ‘Titles of European Hereditary Monarchs’, Aragon, Doc. 1, March 1458, www.geocities.com/eurprin/aragon.html (2009). 100. Quoted by George Hersey, Alfonso II and the Artistic Renewal of Naples (New Haven, 1969). 101. Harry Hodgkinson, Scanderbeg (London, 2004); O. G. S. Crawford (ed.), Ethiopian Itineraries, c. 1400–1524 (Cambridge, 1958), pp. 12ff. 102. David Abulafia, ‘The Crown of Aragon in the Fifteenth Century’, unpaginated draft article to appear in the catalogue of the ‘Crown of Aragon’ Exhibition, Philadelphia Museum of Art (planned for 2010 but postponed). With permission. 103. ‘Callistus III’, in Kelly, The Oxford Dictionary of Popes, pp. 179–80. 104. Marion Johnson, The Borgias (London, 2001). 105. Felipe Fernández-Armesto, Ferdinand and Isabella (London, 1975); J.-H. Mariejol, The Spain of Ferdinand and Isabella (New Brunswick, NJ, 1961). 106. Marie-Louyse Des Garets, Le Roi René (Paris, 1980). 107. John Elliott, Imperial Spain (London, 1963), pp. 24, 30–31. 108. P. Vilar, ‘Le Déclin catalan du bas Moyen ge’, Estudios de Historia Moderna, 6 (1956–9), pp. 1–68. 109. Abulafia, ‘The Crown of Aragon’. 110. Jozef Pérez, ‘The Inquisition in the Kingdom of Aragon’, in his The Spanish Inquisition: A History (New Haven, 2005), pp. 30–33; Henry Kamen, The Spanish Inquisition (London, 1965). 111. Abulafia, ‘The Crown of Aragon’. 112. Felipe Fernández-Armesto 1492: The year our World Began (London, 2010). 113. Mariejol, The Spain of Ferdinand and Isabella, passim. 114. Published as Marineo Lucio, Crónica d’Aragón (Barcelona, 1974). 115. Henry Kamen, Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492–1763 (London, 2003). 116. Geoffrey Parker, Philip II (London, 1979). 117. See Ernle Bradford, The Great Siege of Malta: 1565 (London, 1969). 118. V. Titone, La società siciliana sotto gli spagnoli (Palermo, 1978). 119. ‘Battle of le Puig’, Malta Times, 5 January 2007, ‘Expert Concludes Mattia Preti Painting Depicts Famous 13th Century Battle.’ 120. M. Mignet, Antonio Perez and Philip II (London, 1846). 121. Elliott, The Revolt of the Catalans. 122. See Henry Kamen, Spain in the Later Seventeenth Century (London, 1983). 123. Henry Kamen, The War of the Spanish Succession in Spain, 1700–15 (London, 1969); David Francis, The First Peninsular War, 1702–13 (London, 1975). 124. Henry Kamen, Philip V of Spain: The King who Reigned Twice (New Haven, 2001).
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125. www.spain-flag.eu/region-spain-flags/aragon.htm (2008). 126. Armand de Fluvià i Escorsa, Els quatre pals: l’escut dels comtes de Barcelona (Barcelona, 1994). 127. See J. Llobera, The Role of Historical Memory in (Ethno)Nation-Building (London, 1996). 128. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/els_segadors (2011). 129. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/himno_de_aragon (2011). 130. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/himno_de_la_comunidad_valenciana (2011). 131. ‘The Anthem of Majorca’, http://www.consellmallorca.net/?&id_parent=272&id_section=1855&id_son=749& (2011). 132. ‘Hymne á la Catalogne’, http:www.oasisdesartistes.com/modules/newbbex/viewtopic.php? (2011). 133. Bisson, Medieval Crown, pp. 189–90.
Chapter 5. LITVA
Bibliographical Note. The historiography of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is extremely fragmented, and preliminary introductions in English are hard to find. A start could be made with Jerzy Lukowski, Liberty’s Folly: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Eighteenth Century, 1697–1795 (London, 1991), Daniel Stone, The Polish-Lithuanian State, 1386–1795 (Seattle, 2001) or even with Norman Davies, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, 2 vols.(Oxford, 1981), vol. 1, which provides the background to the long period of union with Poland between 1385 and 1795. More serious researchers will need to have half a dozen languages at their fingertips, and must be prepared to wrestle with conflicting Lithuanian, Belarusian, Polish and Russian perspectives. See Stephen Rowell, A History of Lithuania (Vilnius, 2002), Nicholas Vakar, Belorussia: The Making of a Nation (Cambridge, Mass., 1956) and John Fennell, The Crisis of Medieval Russia, 1200–1304 (London, 1983). A multinational survey of the Grand Duchy’s history is eagerly awaited from the pen of Professor Robert Frost of Aberdeen University.
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1. CIA, World Factbook, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bo/html (2008); www.alternativeairlines.com/belavia. 2. The website for ‘International Tourist Rankings’ names fifty countries. The Corruption Perception Index is produced by Transparency International. The ‘Quality of Life Index’ and the ‘Democracy Index’ are both produced by the Economist Intelligence Unit, London, www.eiu.com. 3. BBC News online, Stephen Mulvey, ‘Profile: Europe’s Last Dictator?’,10 September 2001; see also http://president.gov.by/en. 4. Piers Paul Read, Ablaze: The Story of Chernobyl (London, 1993); Alex Kirby, ‘Analysis: The Chernobyl Legacy’, BBC News online, 5 June 2000; John Vidal, ‘Hell on Earth’, Guardian, 26 April 2006; USA Nuclear Regulatory Commission, ‘Fact Sheet on the Accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant’, www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/fschernobyl.html (2008). 5. http://www.massviolence.org/kurapaty-1937-1941-nkvd-mass-killings (2010). 6. Ivan Lubachko, Belorussia under Soviet Rule (Lexington, Ky., 1973); Keith Sword (ed.), The Soviet Takeover of the Polish Eastern Provinces, 1939–41. (Basingstoke, 1991); David Marples, Belarus: From Soviet Rule to Nuclear Catastrophe (Basingstoke, 1996). 7. European Humanities University, Vilnius, http://en.ehu.lt/about (2008). 8. ‘Alexander Lukashenko: Dictator with a Difference’, Daily Telegraph, 25 Sept. 2008; BBC News online, ‘Observers Deplore Belarus Vote’, 24 April 2004. 9. For an eccentrically apologetic assessment, see Stewart Parker, The Last Soviet Republic: Alexander Lukashenko’s Belarus (Minsk, 2007). 10. Helena Golani, ‘Two Decades of the Russian Federation’s Foreign Policy in the CIS: The Cases of Belarus and Ukraine’, Hebrew University, 2011: http://www.ef.huki.ac.il/publications/yakovlevgolani.pdf (2011). 11. ‘Eastern Partnership’, European Union External Action: http://eeas.europa.eu/eastern/index-en.htm (2011). 12. http://charter97.org/en/news/2011/5/22/38809/?1 (2011). 13. ‘Wikileaks, Belarus and Israel Shamir’, http://www.indexoncensorship.org/,,,wikileaks-belarus-and-israel-shamir (2011). 14. David Stern, ‘Europe’s Last Dictator Goes to the Polls’, BBC News online, 17 December 2010. 15. ‘As Belarus Votes, World Settles for Lukashenko as the Devil it Knows’, Radio Free Europe, 31 Jan. 2011. 16. Evgeny Morozov, The Net Delusion: How Not to Liberate the World (London, 2011); see also Timothy Garton Ash, Guardian, 19 Jan. 2011. 17. The Soviet era memorial was designed to divert attention from the none-too-distant site of the NKVD’s massacre at Katyn: www.belarus-misc.org/history/chatyn.htm (2008). 18. Captured from the Poles in September 1939, the old fortress of Brest (Brest-Litovsk) was the scene of a heroic stand by the Red Army at the start of Operation Barbarossa. See ‘Brest Hero Fortress’, www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/brest_fortress (2007). 19. The Virtual Belarus Guide, www.belarusguide.com/travel1 (2007). 20. http:/www.belarus.by/en/travel/adventure-sports (2011). 21. www.belintourist.by/travel (2007). 22. Sergei Mel′nik, MNP – MIR (Minsk, 2007), p. 18; see also http://whc.unesco.org/en/lis (2009). 23. Mel′nik, MIR, pp. 2–5. 24. Ibid., p. 5. 25. Ibid., passim. 26. http://www.radzima.org/eng/locality/dzyarzhynava.html (2011). 27. www.soviet.bunker.com (2011). 28
. Dan Hancox, ‘Back in the USSR’, Guardian, 2 May 2011. 29. www.belarusguide.com/as/history/vklintro.html (2007).
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30. Marija Gimbutas, The Balts (London, 1963); Alfred Senn, The Lithuanian Language: A Characterization (Chicago, Ill., 1942). 31. Bryan Sykes, Blood of the Isles: Exploring the Roots of our Tribal History (London, 2006); idem, One World – Many Genes (Cedar City, Ut., 2003). 32. On Slavic prehistory, see Marija Gimbutas, The Slavs (London, 1971). I am indebted to Michał Giedroyć of Oxford for guidance in crossing this minefield, and for his unpublished notes on ‘Belarus: The Missing Link’ (2007). 33. Reginald De Bray, ‘Byelorussian’, in his Guide to the Slavonic Languages (London, 1961), pp. 129–92; also ‘The Belarusian Language’, http://languages.miensk.com/lang_eu_as_af/indoeuropean/belarusian.htm (2007). 34. The outlines of the controversy over ‘Litva’ can be followed on the Internet in the conflicting information supplied by Lithuanian and Belarusian sites. Compare ‘Lithuanian History, A Brief Chronology’, www.balticsworldwide.com/tourist/lithuania/history.htm, and ‘History of Belarus in Dates’, http://xz5.org, or ‘The Origins of the Grand Duchy of Litva (Lithuania)’, www.belarusguide.com/as/history/jermal1.html. The rudiments of the problem, but not a solution, can be observed in W. Ostrowski, The Ancient Names and Early Cartography of Byelorussia (London, 1971). 35. D. Ostrowski (ed.), The Povest′ vremennykh let: An Interlinear Collation and Paradosis (Cambridge, Mass., 2003). 36. Arthur Koestler, The Thirteenth Tribe: The Khazar Empire and its Heritage (London, 1976). 37. See Richard Fletcher, The Barbarian Conversion: From Paganism to Christianity (Berkeley, 1999). 38. As per The History of Leo the Deacon, ed. A.-M. Talbot and D. F. Sullivan (Washington, 2005). 39. Die Annales Quedlinburgenses, ed. Martina Giese (Hanover, 2004), entry for AD 1009. The Lithuanian millennium was celebrated in July 2009; www.kulturkompasset.com/2009/06/lithuanian_millenium_celebration_in-vilnius. 40. ‘St Euphrosyne of Polotsk’, www.belarus/by/…/famous_belarusians (2007). 41. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cyril_of_turaw (2007); A. Mel′nikau˘, Kiryl, episkap Turau˘ski (Minsk, 1997). The cathedral of St Kiril of Turau of the Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church is located at 401, Atlantic Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11217. 42. ‘Smolensk Icon Mother of God’, http://www.icon.lt/list/smolensk.htm (2011). 43. M. Isoaho, The Image of Aleksandr Nevskiy in Medieval Russia: Warrior and Saint (Leiden, 2006). 44. Michał Giedroyć, The Rulers of Thirteenth-Century Lithuania (Oxford, 1994). 45. S. Z.ukas, Vilnius: The City and History (Vilnius, 2001); J. Harasowska, Wilno (Glasgow, 1944). 46. See Stephen Christopher Rowell, Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire within East-Central Europe, 1295–1345 (Cambridge, 1994). 47. Saints’ Day, 14 April, www.missionstclare.com/english/people/apr14.htm (2009). 48. Davies, God’s Playground, vol. 1, pp. 116–17. 49. Ibid. 50. ‘Pocket Book of Lithuanian Coins, 1386–1938’, www.freshwap.net/forums/e-book-tutorials/247084-a.html (2009); http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pahonia (2009). 51. G. Micku-naite., Making a Great Ruler: Grand Duke Vytautas of Lithuania (Budapest, 2006). 52. Davies, God’s Playground, vol. 1, pp. 119–21. 53. Livonian confederation, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/livonian_confederation (2007). 54. M. Stremoukoff, ‘Moscow the Third Rome: Sources of the Doctrine’, Speculum (Jan. 1953), pp. 84–101, repr. in M. Cherniavsky (ed.), The Structure of Russian History: Interpretative Essays (New York, 1970). 55. Alan Fisher, The Crimean Tartars (Stanford, Calif., 1978). 56. ‘Zaporizhian Cossacks’, in Volodymyr Kubijovycˇ (ed.), Encyclopedia of Ukraine (Toronto, 1970). 57. http://www.svgatayarus.ru/pda/data/…267_kiev_psalter/index.php?lang (2011). 58. http://en.wikipedia/wiki/dykra (2009). 59. From J. Ochmański, Historia Litwy (Wrocław, 1979), p. 106. 60. S. Mackiewicz, Dom Radziwiłłów (Warsaw, 1990); see also ‘Radziwill Family’, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/radziwi%c5%82%c5%82_family (2008). 61. Mirosława Malczewska, Latyfundium Radzwiłłów w XV do połowy XVI wieku (Warsaw, 1985); World News, http://wn.com/niasvizh_castle (2010). 62. Karl von Loewe (ed.), The Lithuanian Statute of 1529 (Leiden, 1976). 63. Feast Day, 4 March; see ‘St. Casimir’, in Catholic Encyclopedia (New York, 1907). 64. Biblia świe˛ta: to jest Ksie˛gi Starego i Nowego Zakonu (Brest, 1563; facsimile, Paderborn, 2001); S. B. Chyliński, An Account of the Translation of the Bible into the Lithuanian Tongue (Oxford, 1659). 65. See ‘Lithuania’, Encyclopedia Judaica (Jerusalem, 1971), vol. 11; ‘Belorussia’, ibid., vol. 4. 66. Meira Polliack, Karaite Judaism: A Guide (Leiden, 2004). 67. ‘Francis Skaryna’, http://www.belarusguide.com/culture/people/skaryna.html (2010). 68. George Vernadsky et al. (eds.), A Source Book for Russian History from Early Times to 1917, 3 vols. (New Haven, 1972), vol. 1, pp. 109–10. 69. Ochmański, Historia Litwy, p. 117. 70. See ‘Battle of Orsha’, www.kismeta.com/digrasse/orsha.htm (2008). In September 2005 four citizens of Belarus were heavily fined for celebrating the 491st anniversary. 71. W. Dworzaczek, Hetman Jan Tarnowski (Warsaw, 1985). 72. See Robert I. Frost, The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558–1721 (Harlow, 2000). 73. See M. Koialovich, Dnevnik liublinskogo seima 1569 goda (St Petersburg, 1869). 74. H. E. Dembkowski, The Union of Lublin: Polish Federalism in the Golden Age (Boulder, Colo., 1982). 75. Anna Sucheni-Grabowska, Zygmunt August: król polski i wielki ksia˛z.e˛ litewski (Warsaw, 1996). 76. Quoted in Davies, God’s Playground, vol. 1, p. 155. 77. Sucheni-Grabowska, Zygmunt August. 78. www.geocities.com/paris/chateau/7855/kasic/statut/artykul_3.htm. 79. On the origins of the Greek Catholic Church, and the Council of Brest, see Oskar Halecki, From Florence to Brest, 1439–1596 (New York, 1968). 80. Siege of Pskov, V. I. Malyshev (ed.), Pov′est′ o prikhozhenii Stefana Batoriya na grad Pskov (Moscow and Leningrad, 1952), pp. 55 ff. 81. Ibid., p. 98. 82. ‘Vilna’, in Encyclopedia Judaica, vol. 16, pp. 138 ff. 83. The anti-Trinitarian movement in Poland-Lithuania was founded by Fausto Sozzini (1539–1604), whose followers were variously known as Arians, Socinians, Racovians and Polish Brethren. See P. Hewett, Racovia: An Early Liberal Religious Community (Providence, RI, 2004). 84. Isaac of Troki, Hizuk Emunah, or Faith Strengthened (New York, 1970). 85. Voltaire, Mélanges, vol. 3 (Paris, 1961), p. 334. 86. Janusz Tazbir, Piotr Skarga: szermierz kontrreformacji (Warsaw, 1978). 87. ‘St Andrew Bobola’, in Catholic Encyclopedia. 88. See J. Gierowski and A. Kamiński, ‘The Eclipse of Poland’, in New Cambridge Modern History, vol. 6 (Cambridge, 1970), pp. 681–715, trans. Norman Davies. 89. Margus Laidre, ‘On Personalities’, in his The Great Northern War and Estonia (Tallinn, 2010), pp. 218–36. 90. Marceli Kosman, Historia Białorusi (Wrocław, 1979), pp. 172–83. 91. On Stanisław-August, see Adam Zamoyski, The Last King of Poland (London, 1992). 92. Jerzy Lukowski, The Partitions of Poland (London, 1999). 93. Andrzej Ciechanowski, Nieświez˙ : mie˛dzynarodowy ośrodek kultury na Białorusi (Warsaw, 1994), pp. 21–8. See also Richard Butterwick (ed.), Peripheries of the Enlightenment (Oxford, 2008). Naturally, Lithuanian commentators talk of the ‘Lithuanian Enlightenment’. See ‘Age of Enlightenment in Lithuania’, http://lietuva1000.lt/lietuvos-istorija/…/svietimo-epocha-lietuvoje/fulltext (2009). 94. M. Hillar, ‘The Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791: Myth and Reality’, Polish Review, 37/2 (1992), pp. 185–207. 95. M. Haiman, Kościuszko: Leader and Exile (New York, 1977). 96. R. H. Lord, The Second Partition of Poland: A Study in Diplomatic History (Cambridge, Mass., 1915). 97. R. H. Lord, ‘The Third Partition of Poland’, Slavonic Review, 9 (1925).
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