American Experiment

by James Macgregor Burns

  [“Grantism”]: William S. McFeely, Grant: A Biography (W. W. Norton, 1981), chs. 24–25; Thomas A. Bailey, A Diplomatic History of the American People, 9th ed. (Prentice-Hall, 1974), pp. 379, 383.

  [Waite]: PeterC. Magrath, Morrison R. Waite: The Triumph of Character (Macmillan, 1963).

  201 [Hayes on push and shove]: quoted in Bonadio, p. 27.

  [The election of 1876 and the Compromise of 1877]: C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction (Little, Brown, 1951); Keith Ian Polakoff, The Politics of Inertia (Louisiana State University Press, 1973]: Allan Peskin, “Was There a Compromise of 1877?” Journal of American History, vol. 60, no. 1 (June 1973), pp. 63–75; C. Vann Woodward, “Yes, There Was a Compromise of 1877,” ibid., pp. 215–23.

  Politics: The Dance of the Ropewalkers

  203 [Huntington’s direct action]: Woodward, Reunion and Reaction, op. cit., pp. 235–36.

  [Josephson on the talkers and the actors]: Matthew Josephson, The Politicos (Harcourt, Brace, 1938). p. vii.

  [Constriction of the Fourteenth Amendment]: U.S. v. Cruikshank, 92 U.S. 542 (1876), quoted at pp. 545–55; Civil rights cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883).

  [Origins of the Fourteenth Amendment]: Howard Jay Graham, “The Early Antislavery Backgrounds of the Fourteenth Amendment,” Wisconsin Law Review (May 1950), pp. 479–661; Jacobus ten Broek, The Antislavery Origins of the Fourteenth Amendment (University of California Press, 1951); Raoul Berger, Government by Judiciary (Harvard University Press, 1977); Joseph B. James, The Framing of the Fourteenth Amendment (University of Illinois Press, 1956).

  204 [Conkling’s interpretation of Fourteenth Amendment]: Kenneth Stampp, The Era of Reconstruction: 1865–1877 (Alfred A. Knopf, 1975). pp. 137–38.

  [Women and the Fourteenth Amendment]: Ellen C. Du Bois, Feminism and Suffrage (Cornell University Press, 1978), pp. 58–62, 65; Bettina Aptheker, Woman’s Legacy (University of Massachusetts Press, 1982), ch. 2.

  [Anthony’s vote and arrest]: Alma Lutz, Susan B. Anthony: Rebel, Crusader, Humanitarian (Beacon Press, 1959), pp. 198–213, quoted at p. 201.

  [Virginia Minor case]: Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. 162 (1875).

  [Hopes for a new North-South party of property]: Woodward, ch. 2.

  [Raleigh Observer on reviving the Whig Party]: April 4, 1877, quoted in ibid., p. 39.

  205 [Continuing strength of the Democratic party]: Jerome Mushkat, The Reconstruction of the NewYork Democracy (Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1981).

  [Nature of party cleavages]: James L. Sundquist, Dynamics of the Party System (Brookings Institution, 1973), quoted at pp. 93–94.

  206 [Factional stability]: PolakofF, op. cit., p. 321.

  [Republican party subdivisions]: David Donald, The Politics of Reconstruction (Louisiana State University Press, 1965), p. 76.

  [Continuing Ohio Republican leadership]: Joseph B. Foraker Papers, Library of Congress, Container 1.

  [George A. Myers]: George A. Myers Papers, Ohio Historical Society; John A. Garraty, ed., The Barber and the Historian: The Correspondence of George A. Myers and James Ford Rhodes, 1910–1923 (Ohio Historical Society, 1956); Felix James, “The Civic and Political Career of George A. Myers,”Journal of Negro History, vol. 58, no. 2 (April 1973), pp. 166–78.

  207 [The Liberal Republicans]: John G. Sproat, “The Best Men” (Oxford University Press, 1968), quoted at p. 81.

  208 [Greenback party]:Paul Kleppner, “The Greenback and Prohibition Parties,” in Schlesinger, op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 1549–1697; Sundquist, pp. 98–101, and state studies cited therein; Irwin Unger, The Greenback Era (Princeton University Press, 1964).

  [Third parties]: Murray S. Stedman, Jr., and Susan W. Stedman, Discontent at the Polls (Columbia University Press, 1950); Steven J. Rosenstone, Roy L. Behr, Edward H. Lazarus, Third Parties in America (Princeton University Press, 1984), ch. 3.

  208 [Woman suffragist movement, post-Civil War]: Eleanor Flexner, Century of Struggle (Harvard University Press, 1975). esp. ch. 10; Edith Hoshino Altbach, Women in America (D. C. Heath, 1974); Aptheker, ch. 2.

  [Stanton on blacks and foreigners]: quoted in Flexner, p. 147.

  208–9 [Douglass on blacks’ and women’s rights]: ibid.

  209 [Patrons of Husbandry]: Solon Justus Buck, The Granger Movement, 1870–1880 (Harvard University Press, 1913); D. Sven Nordin, Rich Harvest: A History of the Grange, 1867–1900 (University Press of Mississippi, 1974).

  210 [Party continuity]: party histories cited above; also Horatio Seymour Papers, New York Historical Society.

  [Presidential election of 1884]: Mark D. Hirsch, “Election of 1884,” in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., ed., History of American Presidential Elections (Chelsea House, 197:), vol. 2, pp. 1561–1611; Allan Nevins, Grover Cleveland (Dodd, Mead, 1932), ch. 11.

  [Campaign taunts]: quoted in Nevins, p. 177.

  211 [Pastor on “Rum, Romanism and Rebellion”]: quoted in Hirsch in Schlesinger, Elections, vol.2, p. 1578.

  [“Royal Feast”]: October 30, 1884, reprinted in ibid., pp. 1604–5.

  The Poverty of Policy

  [Washington in the 1880s]: Frank C. Carpenter, Carp’s Washington (McGraw-Hill, 1960), quoted at pp. 8–9; see also Charles Hurd, Washington Cavalcade (E. P. Dutton, 1948), pp. 127–43; Constance M. Green, Washington: Capital City 1879–1950 (Princeton University Press, 1963), chs. 2–6; David L. Lewis, District of Columbia (W. W. Norton, 1976), passim.

  [“City of rest and peace”]: S. Reynolds Hole, quoted in Green, p. 77.

  [Grigsby on comfort in Post Office]: ibid.

  212 [Pennsylvania Railroad vs. Pennsylvania Avenue]: ibid., pp. 52–53; Hurd, p. 127.

  [Tariff controversy]: Tom E. Terrill, The Tariff, Politics, and American Foreign Policy, 1874–1901 (Greenwood Press, 1973); Morton Keller, Affairs of State (Belknap Press, 1977), esp. ch. 12; John A. Garraty, The New Commonwealth (Harper & Row, 1968), passim.

  [Newspapers and tariffs]: Terrill, p. 35.

  213 [Terrill on tariff politics]: ibid., p. 10.

  [Cleveland on tariff reduction]: “President’s Annual Message,” December 6, 1887, Congressional Record, 50th Congress, 1st session (Government Printing Office, 1888), vol. 19, part 1, pp. 9–11, quoted at p. 11.

  [Currency legislation]: Margaret G. Myers, A Financial History of the United States (Columbia University Press, 1970), ch. 9; Don C. Barrett, The Greenbacks and Resumption of Specie Payments, 1862–1879 (Harvard University Press, 1931); Clarence A. Stern, Golden Republicanism (Edwards Bros., 1970); Frank W. Taussig, The Silver Situation in the United States (Putnam’s, 1893); Allen Weinstein, Prelude to Populism: Origins of the Silver Issue, 1867–1878 (Yale University Press, 1970).

  [Diffusion of interests on silver issue]: Robert P. Sharkey, “Money, Class, and Party: An Economic Study of Civil War and Reconstruction,” The Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science (Johns Hopkins Press, 1959), series 77, no. 2, pp. 286, 301; Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877–1920 (Hill and Wang, 1967), pp. 13, 21, 300; Stanley Coben, “Northeastern Business and Radical Reconstruction: A Re-examination,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review, vol. 46, no. 1 (June 1959), pp. 67–90.

  214 [Government of maneuver and drift]: Wiebe, pp. 35, 43.

  [Railroad policy]: Thomas C. Cochran, Railroad Leaders, 1845–1890 (Harvard University Press, 1953), ch. 14; Keller, pp. 422–30; see also Gabriel Kolko, Railroads and Regulation 1877–1916 (Princeton University Press, 1965), chs. 1–3; Robert W. Harbeson, “Railroads and Regulation, 1877–1916: Conspiracy or Public Interest?,” Journal of Economic History, vol. 27, no. 2 (June 1967), pp. 230–42; Albro Martin, “The Troubled Subject of Railroad Regulation in the Gilded Age—A Reappraisal,” Journal of American History, vol. 61, no. 2 (September 1974), pp. 339–71.

  215 [Failure of slate and federal supervision]: Keller, p. 430.

  215 [The Big Four]: Leland Stanford Correspondence, Stanford University Archives; Collis P. Huntington Papers, Bancroft Library; Huntington-Mark Hopkins Correspondence, St
anford Archives; Norman E. Tutorow, Leland Stanford: Man of Many Careers (Pacific Coast Publishers, 1971), esp. pp. 70–75.

  [Stanford on “question of might”]: quoted in Stuart Daggett, “Leland Stanford,” in Dumas Malone. ed., Dictionary of American Biography (Scribner’s, 1935), vol. 17, p. 504.

  [“Battle” for the mountain passes]: Stewart H. Holbrook, The Age of the Moguls (Doubleday, 1953), p. 123.

  215–16 [Huntington’s comments and instructions]: NewYork Sun, December 29 and 30, 1883, from letters dated January 17, 1876; November 9, 1877; February 28, 1878 (the letters were from court records of a suit against Huntington).

  216 [Lord Bryce on combination]: James Bryce, The American Commonwealth, rev. ed. (Macmillan, 1921), vol. 2, pp. 591–92.

  [Background and passage of Sherman Antitrust Act]: Hans B. Thorelli, The Federal Antitrust Policy (Johns Hopkins Press, 1955); Keller, pp. 436–37.

  [Antitrust Act]: quoted in Thorelli, p. 610.

  217 [Attacking the surplus]: James R. Tanner, quoted in Richard B. Morris, ed., Encyclopedia of American History (Harper & Bros., 1961), p. 261.

  [Indian policy]: Loring B. Priest, Uncle Sam’s Stepchildren (Rutgers University Press, 1942); Henry E. Fritz, The Movement for Indian Assimilation, 1860–1890 (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1963); Grant Foreman, The Last Trek of the Indians (University of Chicago Press, 1946), part 2; Katherine C. Turner, Red Men Calling on the Great White Father (University of Oklahoma Press, 1951), chs. 9–12; Richard H. Pratt, Battlefield and Classroom, Robert M. Utley, ed. (Yale University Press, 1964); Sean D. Cashman, America in the Gilded Age (New York University Press, 1984), ch. 8.

  [Church officials and Indians]: Priest, esp. ch. 3.

  [Congressional debate on Indians]: Wiebe, p. 11.

  218 [Indian wars]: Robert M. Utley, Frontier Regulars: The United States Army and the Indian, 1866–1890 (Macmillan, 1973); Robert Leckie, The Wars of America (Harper & Row, 1968), pp. 534–38.

  [Sitting Bull]: Utley, Frontier Regulars, p. 236.

  219 [“A match for any man”]: General George Crook, quoted in ibid., p. 72.

  [Life of frontier regulars]: ibid., ch. 6, self-description quoted at p. 80.

  219–20 [U.S. foreign policy, 1865–1877]: Bailey, Diplomatic History, op. cit., chs. 24–26; McFeely, op. cit., ch. 21.

  220 [New interest inforeign affairs]: Robert Beisner, From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 1865–1900 (Thomas Y. Crowell, 1975); Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860–1898 (Cornell University Press, 1963); Milton Plesur, America’s Outward Thrust: Approaches to Foreign Affairs, 1865–1890 (Northern Illinois University Press, 1971).

  [Grant’s world tour]: McFeely, ch. 26.

  221 [Americans abroad]: Plesur, passim: Foster Rhea Dulles, Americans Abroad (University of Michigan Press, 1964), chs. 8–10.

  [James on tourists]: quoted in Dulles, p. 111.

  222 [Economic expansion and foreign affairs]: Plesur, pp. 28ff.

  [“Th’ hand that rules th’ wurruld”]: quoted in ibid., p. 31.

  [Foreign service a “humbug and a sham”]: quoted in Leckie, p. 539.

  [Developments m naval policy]: Walter R. Herrick, Jr., The American Naval Revolution (Louisiana State University Press, 1966); Ronald Spector, Admiral of the New Empire: The Life and Career of George Dewey (Louisiana State University Press, 1974), pp. 21–32; see also Hyman G. Rickover, How the Battleship Maine Was Destroyed (Department of the Navy, 1976), pp. 1–3, 18–21.

  223 [Arthur on need to rebuild navy]: quoted in Herrick, p. 25.

  Showdown 1896

  [Carnegie on Triumphant Democracy]: quoted in Keller, op. cit., p. 440.

  224 [Condition of labor, 1892]: John R. Commons et al., History of Labour in the United States (Macmillan, 1918–35), vol. 2, part 6, ch. 13; Walter A. Wyckoff, The Workers, An Experiment in Reality The West (Scribner’s, 1899), passim.

  224 [Fears of class warfare]: H. Wayne Morgan, From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877–1896 (Syracuse University Press, 1969), p. 441 and note.

  [Populists and blacks]: Robert Saunders, “Southern Populists and the Negro, 1893–1895.” Journal of Negro History, vol. 54, no. 3 (July 1969), pp. 240–61.

  [Fraud in Watson elections]: C. Vann Woodward, Tom Watson, Agrarian Rebel (Macmillan, 1938), pp. 270–77.

  [Homestead strike]: Joseph F. Wall, Andrew Carnegie (Oxford University Press, 1970), ch 16; see also Andrew Carnegie, Autobiography (Houghton Mifflin. 1948), ch. 17.

  [Frick]: George Harvey, Henry Clay Frick: The Man (Scribner’s, 1928), passim; Wall, pp. 478–536.

  225 [Carnegie’s and Frick’s attitudes toward unions]: Wall, p. 544.

  [Berkman’s attack upon Frick]: Harvey, pp. 136–40.

  [Press revilement of Carnegie following Homestead]: Wall, pp. 571–73.

  [St. Louis Post-Dispatch contrasting Fnck and Camegie]: quoted in ibid., p. 573.

  225–6 [Frick’s intransigence]: Harvey, ch. 11, quoted at p. 151; Wall, pp. 566–69.

  226 [Carnegie on Cleveland’s victory]: Carnegie to Frick, November 9, 1892, quoted in Harvey, p. 157.

  [Cleveland’s rejection of “paternalism”]: Inaugural Address, March 4, 1893, reprinted in Inaugural Addresses of the Presidents of the United States (U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974), quoted at p. 165.

  [Depression of the nineties]: Charles Hoffman, The Depression of the Nineties: An Economic History (Greenwood Publishing, 1970), esp. ch. 2 and appendix to ch. 2; Morris, Encyclopedia of American History, op. cit., p. 539; see also Rendig Fels, American Business Cycles, 1865–1897 (University of North Carolina Press, 1959), chs. 10–12.

  [Cleveland’s response to the crisis]: Allan Nevins, Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage (Dodd, Mead, 1932), chs. 29, 31; Morgan, pp. 451–65, 473–76.

  [Living petition]: Resolution of Oak Valley Alliance, Nebraska, May 5, 1894, quoted in Norman Pollack, The Populist Response to Industrial America (W. W. Norton, 1966), p. 50.

  [“Petition in boots “]: Donald L. McMurry, “Jacob Sechler Coxey,” in John A. Garraty, ed., Encyclopedia of American Biography (Harper & Row, 1974), p. 235.

  [Coxey and Coxey’s army]: Norman Pollack, ed., The Populist Mind (Bobbs-Merrill, 1967), pp. 342–47; George P. Tindall.ed., A Populist Reader (Harper & Row, 1966), pp. 160–65; Elizabeth Barr, “ The Populist Uprising,” in William E. Connelley, History of Kansas: State and People (American Historical Society, 1928), vol. 2, pp. 1199–1200; Pollack, Populist Response, pp. 48–52; McMurry in Garraty, pp. 234–35.

  227 [The Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894]: Thomas G. Manning, The Chicago Strike of 1894 (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960), p. 1.

  [Flowers and lawn in the model town]: Pullman pamphlet, quoted in Milton Mellzer, Bread—and Roses: The Struggle of American Labor, 1865–1915 (Alfred A. Knopf, 1967), p. 148.

  [Pullman paternalism]: Almont Lindsey, “Paternalism and the Pullman Strike,” American Historical Review, vol. 44, no. 2 (January 1939), pp. 272–89.

  [“We are born in a Pullman house”]: quoted in Meltzer, p. 151.

  [Strike]: Stanley Buder, Pullman: An Experiment in Industrial Order and Community Planning (Oxford University Press, 1967), chs. 12–15; Manning, passim; Meltzer, ch. 14; Christopher Lamb, “Eugene Debs, the A.R.U., and the Failure of Radical Labor” (typescript, Williams College, 1981); Louis Adamic, Dynamite: The Story of Class Violence in America (Viking Press, 1934), ch. 11.

  [Railroad boycott]: Meltzer, pp. 153–54.

  227–8 [Effect on congressional elections in the nineties of economic and social pressures]: Samuel T. McSeveney, The Politics of Depression: Political Behavior in the Northeast, 1893–1896 (Oxford University Press, 1972), pp. vii–ix.

  [Reed on the unknown Democratic dead]: quoted in Paul W. Glad, McKinley, Bryan, and the People (Lippincott, 1964), p. 91.

  228 [Cleveland, federal finances and the syndicate]: Nevins, pp. 652–66.

  [“I hate the ground that man walks on
”]: Senator John T. Morgan, quoted in ibid., p. 568.

  [Democratic factionalism]: Glad, pp. 91–94, 113–22; Morris, p. 264.

  [Internal populist crisis over silver]: John D. Hicks, The Populist Revolt (University of Nebraska Press, 1961), pp. 316–19; Pollack, Populist Response, pp. 109–10; Topeka Advocate, May 8, 1895.

  228 [Watson on free silver]: C. Vann Woodward, The Origins of the the New South, 1877–1913 (Louisiana Slate University Press, 1951), p. 282.

  229 [Pre-presidential McKinley]: see Margaret Leech, In the Days of McKinley (Harper & Bros., 1959), chs. 1–3.

  [Governor McKinley’s debt]: H. Wayne Morgan, William McKinley and His America (Syracuse University Press, 1963), pp. 169–76.

  [Morgan on McKinley]: Morgan, Hayes to McKinley, pp. 492–93.

  [Bryan]: Louis W. Koenig, Bryan (Putnam’s, 1971); Paolo E. Coletta, William Jennings Bryan: Political Evangelist, 1860–1908 (University of Nebraska Press, 1964).

  229–30 [McKinley and Bryan compared]: Glad, ch. 1 and pp. 32–36, quoted at p. 15.

  230 [La Follette on Bryan’s appearance]: quoted in Morgan, Hayes to McKinley, p. 496.

  [The convention and the speech]: Koenig, ch. 13; Coletta, ch. 8.

  230–1 [Text of Bryan’s “Cross of Gold”]: William Jennings Bryan, The First Battle: A Story of the Campaign (W. B. Conkey, 1896), pp. 199–206, reprinted in Schlesinger, Parties, op. cit, vol. 2, pp. 1080–85, quoted at pp. 1080, 1081, 1085.

  231 [Lloyd on Populist dilemma]: quoted in Woodward, Watson, p. 303.

  [1896 Populist convention]: Robert F. Durden, The Climax of Populism: The Election of 1896 (University of Kentucky Press, 1965), pp. 23–44; Woodward, Watson, pp. 302–31.

  [The fall campaign]: Keller, pp. 582–84; Glad, ch. 8; Gilbert Fite, “Election of 1896,” in Schlesinger, Elections, op. cit., vol. 2, pp. 1787–1825.

  232 [Bryan’s concession and challenge]: quoted in Morgan, Hayes to McKinley, p. 521.

  [Watson on death of Populist party]: Woodward, Watson, p. 330.