by Peter Archer
The Beowulf Manuscript
Such is the tale of Beowulf. Although it is written in Ango-Saxon and thus is not, strictly speaking, a Viking myth, there seems no question that it was known to Scandinavians and thus was part of Viking mythology. The Geats came from what is now Sweden; Scyld, the ancestor of Hrothgar, was a ruler of Sweden, so the location of the poem is clearly Scandinavian. At the same time, it demonstrates the close connections that existed in the early Middle Ages between England and Scandinavia.
We are remarkably lucky to know of the poem at all, since it exists in a single manuscript, dating from the late tenth or early eleventh centuries. Considering how easily such manuscripts were destroyed (particularly during the English reformation of the sixteenth century), we’re amazingly fortunate to know of its existence.
The manuscript is called the Nowell Codex and is held at Oxford University. J.R.R. Tolkien studied Beowulf extensively and made a translation of it that has only recently been published. His scholarly article, “Beowulf: The Monster and the Critics,” is considered an important landmark in studies of Anglo-Saxon literature.
The poem is written in Anglo-Saxon in a poetic mode in which the first half of each line alliterates with the second half of the line. Most scholars feel that the poem was first part of an oral tradition and later transcribed for permanent learning.
It also seems clear that the first versions of the poem were pagan, and that later in its life Christian interpolations were added. Grendel, for instance, is described as an offspring of Cain, but there’s no reason to think he was originally so described.
Christian Influences
By the time many Viking myths were written down, the chief authors were Christian. Snorri Sturluson was among them, and his account of the Scandinavian gods is tinged with Christian themes.
Heorot
The great hall of Hrothgar in which the first part of the poem’s action takes place seems to have had a foundation in reality. Recent excavations at Lejre in Denmark, identified as a possible seat of the Scyldings, Hrothgar’s people, show that a great hall was built there during the sixth century, around the time the poem’s action occurs.
In any case, the Beowulf poet shows us how centrally important to Viking life was the institution of the hall.
It came to his mind
that he would command a royal building,
a gabled mead-hall fashioned by craftsmen,
which the sons of men should hear of forever.
Significantly, Heorot is called a mead-hall (the Anglo-Saxon term is medo-ærn). Earlier in the poem it is said that the warrior chieftain and Hrothgar’s ancestor Scyld Scefing seized mead-benches from enemies. We can presume that he did not so much take the actual benches on which mead was drunk but instead seized or destroyed the halls of his enemies.
Just as the ship was the most important element in Viking raiding, the hall was the center of Viking settlements. Here the warriors gathered to drink, eat, engage in contests of strength, and listen to a bard recite myths and tales.
Beowulf and Grendel’s Contest
One way to read the account of Beowulf’s battle with Grendel in Heorot is that it is a satire of the traditional fights and matches that were the normal source of entertainment in a Norse hall. The watching warriors who dare not interfere with their chieftain’s single combat against the monster form a sort of formal audience of this test of strength.
The Treasure of Sutton Hoo
In 1939, archaeologists in East Anglia in England began excavation of one of several large mounds. They discovered almost immediately that they had uncovered a ship burial, one of the most important that had ever been found in the British Isles.
Unfortunately, 1939 was not the best year for archaeological work, since Britain was about to begin a six-year military clash with Germany, during which many parts of Britain would suffer bombings. The Sutton Hoo site was re-covered, and historians and archaeologists spent the next six years with their fingers crossed that the site would be immune from a stray German bomb or rocket.
When investigations resumed in 1946, the scientists found to their delight that although the wooden planks of the ship had rotted away, its shape was almost perfectly preserved in the soil. No body was found, and the general consensus among archaeologists now is that the acidic soil destroyed it.
However, a rich hoard of artifacts was discovered, almost all of which now reside in the British Museum. These include a helmet, sword, and an assortment of jewelry.
One reason for the find’s importance is that it confirms in so many respects the account that Beowulf and other Viking sagas give of life in Scandinavia and Britain during the early Middle Ages. Contrary to the modern artistic impressions of Vikings wearing helmets with horns on them, their battle helmets probably looked far more like that found at Sutton Hoo: metal flaps hanging from an iron cap, covering the face and ears, with holes for the eyes and mouth. The Sutton Hoo helmet is heavily decorated, and that, combined with the richness of the hoard, suggests the burial was of someone very important. The scholar Henry Chadwick suggested in the 1940s that it may have been Rædwald, king of East Anglia, a proposal that has met with wide (though not complete) agreement.
The site is also noteworthy for the lack of Christian artifacts. In this respect, it is like burial sites from earlier centuries found throughout Scandinavia before the area’s conversion. Some scholars have suggested that the kings of East Anglia, who were among the last in Britain to become Christian, made their gravesites particularly rich in contents as a way of demonstrating their independence from Christianity.
Chapter Fourteen
Ragnarök: The End of the World
The Vikings had extremely specific beliefs about the end of the world. Of course, eschatology is common to many religions, but the Vikings spelled out the apocalypse in clear detail. They called it Ragnarök, a term used in the Prose Edda and in one poem of the Poetic Edda. The meaning of the word is not entirely clear, but it seems to mean “the destruction of the gods.”
The most complete explanation comes in the Prose Edda, when Gylfi asks, “What can you tell me concerning the fate of the gods?”
“Great tidings indeed,” replies High.
Winter and Strife
The beginning of Ragnarök will be signaled by violent changes in the weather. According to the Völuspá,
Dark grows the sun
And in summer soon
Come mighty storms.
Snorri says that there will be three winters; the first will be called the Awful Winter in which snow shall drive into every nook and cranny and the air will snap with frost. Winds will tear at frozen limbs and even the sun will be powerless to warm anyone. Between the winters there will be no summer, but all over the nine worlds folk will be wrent by strife. The bonds of kinship will be violated, and children will sin together.
This battle among men is the prologue to the much more serious conflict among the gods that will now occur. Fenriswolf will break free from his bondage and will swallow the sun.
Axe time, sword time,
Shields are sundered
Wind time, wolf time,
Ere the world falls;
Nor ever shall men
Each other spare.
Heimdall, guardian of Bifrost, will raise his horn, Gjallarhorn, and blow, warning the gods of Asgard that Ragnarök is upon them. The earth will tremble, says Snorri, so that “trees shall be torn up from the earth, and the crags fall to ruin.”
Jörmungandr will thrash about in the sea, and the waters will spread across Midgard. The ship Naglfar, which is made up of dead men’s fingernails and toenails, shall be loose upon the sea, steered by the giant Hrym.
Battle of Giants and Gods
Now Fenriswolf will swell to a gigantic size and place its jaws around the earth. Jörmungandr will blow venom into the air so it rains down upon the world. The giants of Múspell will ride, led by Surtr, surrounded by a burning fire, swords drawn. They will ride
across Bifrost, and the bridge will shatter in their wake. They shall pass on to a field called Vígridr, accompanied by Fenriswolf and Jörmungandr.
Loki and Hrym and the frost giants will also go there.
Heimdall’s horn will alert all the gods, and they will take council. After this, Odin will ride Sleipnir to Mímir’s Well and take council with Mímir’s head. As Yggdrasil trembles, filling all the inhabitants of the nine worlds with dread, the Æsir will array themselves for battle and ride forth to Vígridr.
Odin will lead them, armor clad, brandishing his spear Gungnir. On either side of him stand Thor holding Mjollnir and Freyr. Against them are Fenriswolf, who growls and snarls at Odin, saliva dripping from his jaws; Jörmungandr against Thor, its great body thrashing back and forth; and against Freyr is Surtr.
From far below is a great roaring, and the hound Garm bounds up from the Gates of Hel. His destined foe is Tyr the One-Handed, who bravely sacrificed his hand to bind Fenriswolf when the world was young.
The Battles
Thor clashes with the Midgard serpent. Over and over he strikes the beast until at last the wyrm lies dead at his feat. Nine steps Thor takes away from the corpse, and then he too falls lifeless, poisoned by the venom Jörmungandr spewed into the air.
Meanwhile, Odin wrestles with Fenriswolf, his hands holding wide the jaws of the sun swallower. His muscles strain and crack as the wolf tries to snap its mouth shut. A long, low, heart-stopping growl emerges from the back of its throat and runs around the world. Then, in a second, it is over. The wolf swallows the god whole. But Vídarr, god of vengeance, sees what is going forward. He strides forth and places a foot upon Fenriswolf’s lower jaw. On that foot is a shoe that is built of the scraps of leather men throw away when they are cobbling shoes. With his hands he seizes the upper jaw of the wolf and rips the wolf in half. Blood pours down like rain across the world.
Meanwhile Loki the Traitor grapples with Heimdall. Many blows do they hew and many wounds do they each inflict. But each will, in the end, fall, slain by the other.
The sun shall be darkened
Earth sinks in the sea—
Glide from the heaven
The glittering stars
Smoke-reek rages
And reddening fire:
The high heat licks
Against heaven itself.
The Rebirth
The souls of brave warriors fly into the heavens. There are halls to receive them: Brimir, Sindri where dwell the pure in heart. But the oath-breakers and the evil ones are banished to Náströnd, an evil hall, its doors to the north, and through it flow rivers of viper venom.
But in time, the earth shall lift from the waters, verdant and fair, and some gods yet living shall be upon it. Vídarr and Váli shall be there, and the son of Thor, who shall possess Mjollnir. And even Baldr from Hel shall come forth and hold council with those gods that yet live. So the earth shall be renewed, and the race of men shall flourish upon it.
At the End
Such is the story told by Snorri Sturluson in the Prose Edda. Details are added in the Völuspá and other Eddic poems. What the story tells us is that like many other peoples, the Vikings believed in an endless cycle of birth, destruction, and rebirth. This may have been comforting to a people whose lives must often have seemed transient and violent, subject to sudden death or injury.
Though the Vikings were often seen by others in Western Europe as a destructive force, sent to destroy the works of man and God, they were also a deeply civilizing power, who carried their myths and their gods to every corner of the continent and beyond. We owe them a great debt.
Glossary
A
Ægir
God of the sea; possibly a giant.
Æsir
One of the two races of Viking gods (see Vanir). The Æsir include Odin, Thor, Frigg, Baldr, and Tyr.
Alfheim
One of the nine worlds, home of the Light Elves (see Elves), located in the top layer of worlds along with Asgard and Vanaheim.
Andvaranaut
A ring from the hoard of the dragon Fafnir and ultimately from the treasure of Andvari. The ring, like the rest of the treasure, is cursed and brings unhappiness to whoever possesses it.
Andvari
A dwarf, possessor of a great treasure that is eventually taken by Loki and Odin to pay their debt to Hreidmar for slaying his son Otter. However, the dwarf cursed the treasure before they took it.
Angrboda
A giantess and the wife of Loki; mother of Jörmungandr, the World Serpent; Hel; and Fenriswolf (see Loki).
L’Anse aux Meadows
Site of Leif Erikson’s first settlement in North America more than 500 years before the voyages of Columbus.
Asgard
One of the nine worlds; dwelling place of the Æsir and Vanir. It is surrounded by a high wall (although incomplete) built by a giant. It also contains Valhalla.
Ask
The first man, made by Odin and his brothers from the wood of an ash tree.
Audhumla
A cow formed from the primal clay of the world, she nourished the giant Ymir. She licked the salt from the rim of Ginnungagap and licked out the form of a man who would become the father of Odin.
B
Baldr
The most beautiful of the Æsir, the offspring of Odin and Frigg. He is killed accidentally by Hödr through the treachery of Loki, for which action Loki is trapped and bound by the gods.
Beowulf
Champion, and later king, of the Geats, a Scandinavian people. He comes to the aid of the Scylding chieftain Hrothgar after a series of attacks on the latter’s hall, Heorot. Beowulf defeats the monster Grendel and Grendel’s mother but dies many years later after a battle with a dragon.
Bergelmir
The only giant to survive the attack of Odin and his brothers, Vili and Vé. Bergelmir fled and hid and was eventually able to sire more giants who repopulated the frost giants.
Bifrost
The three-colored rainbow bridge that links Midgard and Asgard. It terminates at Himinbjörg, hall of Heimdall, who guards it against possible invasions by the giants.
Billing’s daughter
A woman loved by Odin who tricked him, fleeing him and leaving in her place a bitch. The episode prompted the Allfather to meditate on the faithlessness of women.
Borr
Son of Búri (see Búri) and the father of Odin by a woman named Bestla, who in turn was the daughter of a giant.
Bragi
The god of poetry. His daughter Nanna is married to Baldr.
Brísingamen, necklace of
A necklace fashioned by four dwarves and worn by the goddess Freyja after she agreed to sleep with each of the dwarves in turn. The necklace gives the appearance of being on fire.
Brynhild
A Valkyrie and the beloved of Sigurd in the Völsunga Saga. Tragically, although Brynhild loves Sigurd above all other men, she knows that the two of them will never be wed. When Sigurd’s funeral pyre is lighted, she steps onto it and joins him in death.
Búri
The man who was licked out of the ice of Ginnungagap by Audhumla the cow. He was the father of Borr and the grandfather of Odin.
C
Cnut the Great (c. 995–1035)
Ruler of the Danelaw and later king of a united England as well as Denmark and Norway. Cnut is the greatest of the Danish kings of Britain.
D
Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr, and Durathrór
Four harts that live in the branches of Yggdrasil, devouring its leaves.
Danelaw
The area of Britain controlled by the Vikings and their descendants from the ninth through the eleventh centuries. It culminated in the reign of Cnute the Great, who ruled a united England, Norway, and Denmark.
Draupnir
An arm ring made by the dwarves for Odin. He places it on the funeral pyre of his son, Baldr.
Dvergatal
A catalog of dwarves’
names. Although it is part of the Völuspá, many scholars believe it was a later insertion into the poem and not part of the original.
Dwarves
The dwarves of Viking mythology dwell in Svartalfheim. Although they are accounted great craftsmen, they are generally short and ugly with foul tempers. As such they often come into conflict with the gods. The dwarves were fashioned from the body of the primeval giant Ymir.
E
Eikthyrnir
A stag living atop Valhalla. From its horns drips down liquid that flows into Hvergelmir in Niflheim
Eir
Goddess of doctors.
Elves
Elves are rarely seen by humans; they are divided into Light Elves, who live above the ground and love human beings, and Dark Elves, who live below ground and are evil.
Embla
The first woman, made by Odin and his brothers from the wood of an elm tree.
Erik the Red (950–c. 1003)
Norse Viking and father of Leif Erikson, he established the first Viking colonies in Greeland.
F
Fafnir
Son of Hreidmar and brother to Otter and Regin. He lusts after the gold given his father for compensation for the death of Otter. Eventually he steals the gold, but he is turned into a dragon. In this form, he is slain by Sigurd the Volsung.
Farbauti
In some accounts the frost giant who is the father of Loki.
Fenriswolf
One of the children of Loki (the other two are the World Serpent and Hel). Fenriswolf was bound by the gods, but at the coming of Ragnarök, it will break free and swallow Odin whole.