by Edited
One of the most powerful effects of these Irish fairy and folk tales has been their influence on Joyce, as I’ve already been at pains to point out. William Allingham’s “A Dream,” which begins the “Ghosts” section, may be an additional influence on “The Dead”:
I heard the dogs howl in the moonlight night;
I went to the window to see the sight;
All the Dead that ever I knew
Going one by one and two by two.
Yet another is William Carleton’s “The Fate of Frank McKenna,” the last in the “Ghosts” section, in which “one of the most terrible snow-storms ever remembered in that part of the country came on,” reminiscent of the observation that “snow was general all over Ireland” in “The Dead.” Frank McKenna is lost in the storm, then begins to appear in various guises, including that of a hare, a representation of the “other” that we also find in Mr. and Mrs. S. C. Hall’s “The Witch Hare,” and the anonymous account of “Bewitched Butter (Queen’s County),” and, indeed, in Yeats’s own great magic-poem, “The Collar-bone of a Hare.”
But the impact of these tales doesn’t stop with Yeats, or Joyce, or Oscar Wilde (whose own interest in fairy tales and everlasting youth was inspired by his mother), or Beckett (who’s thought to have transferred one of the hunches from the unfortunate Jack Madden in “The Legend of Knock-grafton” to the unfortunate Hunchy Hackett of Watt); for generations of readers in Ireland and throughout the world have found them flourishing like those persistent fairy thorns.
——
PAUL MULDOON is the Howard G.B. Clark University Professor in the Humanities at Princeton, and Professor of Poetry at Oxford. His most recent books are Poems 1968–1998 (2001) and Moy Sand and Gravel (2002), both published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
* In this quoted passage, as well as in subsequent citations throughout this Foreword, italicization denotes emphasis added by me.
INTRODUCTION
William Butler Yeats
Dr. Corbett, Bishop of Oxford and Norwich, lamented long ago the departure of the English fairies. “In Queen Mary’s time,” he wrote:
“When Tom came home from labor,
Or Cis to milking rose,
Then merrily, merrily went their tabor,
And merrily went their toes.”
But now, in the times of James, they had all gone, for “they were of the old profession,” and “their songs were Ave Maries.” In Ireland they are still extant, giving gifts to the kindly, and plaguing the surly. “Have you ever seen a fairy or such like?” I asked an old man in County Sligo. “Amn’t I annoyed with them,” was the answer. “Do the fishermen along here know anything of the mermaids?” I asked a woman of a village in County Dublin. “Indeed, they don’t like to see them at all,” she answered, “for they always bring bad weather.” “Here is a man who believes in ghosts,” said a foreign sea-captain, pointing to a pilot of my acquaintance. “In every house over there,” said the pilot, pointing to his native village of Rosses, “there are several.” Certainly that now old and much respected dogmatist, the Spirit of the Age, has in no manner made his voice heard down there. In a little while, for he has gotten a consumptive appearance of late, he will be covered over decently in his grave, and another will grow, old and much respected, in his place, and never be heard of down there, and after him another and another and another. Indeed, it is a question whether any of these personages will ever be heard of outside the newspaper offices and lecture-rooms and drawing-rooms and eelpie houses of the cities, or if the Spirit of the Age is at any time more than a froth. At any rate, whole troops of their like will not change the Celt much. Giraldus Cambrensis found the people of the western islands a trifle paganish. “How many gods are there?” asked a priest, a little while ago, of a man from the Island of Innistor. “There is one on Innistor; but this seems a big place,” said the man, and the priest held up his hands in horror, as Giraldus had, just seven centuries before. Remember, I am not blaming the man; it is very much better to believe in a number of gods than in none at all, or to think there is only one, but that he is a little sentimental and impracticable, and not constructed for the nineteenth century. The Celt, and his cromlechs, and his pillar-stones, these will not change much—indeed, it is doubtful if anybody at all changes at any time. In spite of hosts of deniers, and asserters, and wise-men, and professors, the majority still are averse to sitting down to dine thirteen at table, or being helped to salt, or walking under a ladder, or seeing a single magpie flirting his chequered tail. There are, of course, children of light who have set their faces against all this, though even a newspaper man, if you entice him into a cemetery at midnight, will believe in phantoms, for every one is a visionary, if you scratch him deep enough. But the Celt is a visionary without scratching.
Yet, be it noticed, if you are a stranger, you will not readily get ghost and fairy legends, even in a western village. You must go adroitly to work, and make friends with the children, and the old men, with those who have not felt the pressure of mere daylight existence, and those with whom it is growing less, and will have altogether taken itself off one of these days. The old women are most learned, but will not so readily be got to talk, for the fairies are very secretive, and much resent being talked of; and are there not many stories of old women who were nearly pinched into their graves or numbed with fairy blasts?
At sea, when the nets are out and the pipes are lit, then will some ancient hoarder of tales become loquacious, telling his histories to the tune of the creaking of the boats. Holy-eve night, too, is a great time, and in old days many tales were to be heard at wakes. But the priests have set faces against wakes.
In the Parochial Survey of Ireland it is recorded how the story-tellers used to gather together of an evening, and if any had a different version from the others, they would all recite theirs and vote, and the man who had varied would have to abide by their verdict. In this way stories have been handed down with such accuracy, that the long tale of Dier-dre was, in the earlier decades of this century, told almost word for word, as in the very ancient MSS. in the Royal Dublin Society. In one case only it varied, and then the MS. was obviously wrong—a passage had been forgotten by the copyist. But this accuracy is rather in the folk and bardic tales than in the fairy legends, for these vary widely, being usually adapted to some neighboring village or local fairy-seeing celebrity. Each county has usually some family, or personage, supposed to have been favored or plagued, especially by the phantoms, as the Hackets of Castle Hacket, Galway, who had for their ancestor a fairy, or John-o’-Daly of Lisadell, Sligo, who wrote “Eilleen Aroon,” the song the Scotch have stolen and called “Robin Adair,” and which Handel would sooner have written than all his oratorios,* and the “O’Donahue of Kerry.” Round these men stories tended to group themselves, sometimes deserting more ancient heroes for the purpose. Round poets have they gathered especially, for poetry in Ireland has always been mysteriously connected with magic.
These folk-tales are full of simplicity and musical occurrences, for they are the literature of a class for whom every incident in the old rut of birth, love, pain, and death has cropped up unchanged for centuries: who have steeped everything in the heart: to whom everything is a symbol. They have the spade over which man has leaned from the beginning. The people of the cities have the machine, which is prose and a parvenu. They have few events. They can turn over the incidents of a long life as they sit by the fire. With us nothing has time to gather meaning, and too many things are occurring for even a big heart to hold. It is said the most eloquent people in the world are the Arabs, who have only the bare earth of the desert and a sky swept bare by the sun. “Wisdom has alighted upon three things,” goes their proverb; “the hand of the Chinese, the brain of the Frank, and the tongue of the Arab.” This, I take it, is the meaning of that simplicity sought for so much in these days by all the poets, and not to be had at any price.
The most notable and typical story-teller of my acquaintance is one
Paddy Flynn, a little, bright-eyed, old man, living in a leaky one-roomed cottage of the village of B—–, “The most gentle—i.e., fairy—place in the whole of the County Sligo,” he says, though others claim that honor for Drumahair or for Drumcliff. A very pious old man, too! You may have some time to inspect his strange figure and ragged hair, if he happen to be in a devout humor, before he comes to the doings of the gentry. A strange devotion! Old tales of Columkill, and what he said to his mother. “How are you today, mother?” “Worse!” “May you be worse to-morrow”; and on the next day, “How are you to-day, mother?” “Better, thank God.” “May you be better to-morrow.” In which undutiful manner he will tell you Columkill inculcated cheerfulness. Then most likely he will wander off into his favorite theme—how the Judge smiles alike in rewarding the good and condemning the lost to unceasing flames. Very consoling does it appear to Paddy Flynn, this melancholy and apocalyptic cheerfulness of the Judge. Nor seems his own cheerfulness quite earthly—though a very palpable cheerfulness. The first time I saw him he was cooking mushrooms for himself; the next time he was asleep under a hedge, smiling in his sleep. Assuredly some joy not quite of this steadfast earth lightens in those eyes—swift as the eyes of a rabbit—among so many wrinkles, for Paddy Flynn is very old. A melancholy there is in the midst of their cheerfulness—a melancholy that is almost a portion of their joy, the visionary melancholy of purely instinctive natures and of all animals. In the triple solitude of age and eccentricity and partial deafness he goes about much pestered by children.
As to the reality of his fairy and spirit-seeing powers, not all are agreed. One day we were talking of the Banshee. “I have seen it,” he said, “down there by the water ‘batting’ the river with its hands.” He it was who said the fairies annoyed him.
Not that the Sceptic is entirely afar even from these western villages. I found him one morning as he bound his corn in a merest pocket-handkerchief of a field. Very different from Paddy Flynn—Scepticism in every wrinkle of his face, and a travelled man, too!—a foot-long Mohawk Indian tattooed on one of his arms to evidence the matter. “They who travel,” says a neighboring priest, shaking his head over him, and quoting Thomas A’Kempis, “seldom come home holy.” I had mentioned ghosts to this Sceptic. “Ghosts,” said he; “there are no such things at all, at all, but the gentry, they stand to reason; for the devil, when he fell out of heaven, took the weak-minded ones with him, and they were put into the waste places. And that’s what the gentry are. But they are getting scarce now, because their time’s over, ye see, and they’re going back. But ghosts, no! And I’ll tell ye something more I don’t believe in—the fire of hell”; then, in a low voice, “that’s only invented to give the priests and the parsons something to do.” Thereupon this man, so full of enlightenment, returned to his corn-binding.
The various collectors of Irish folk-lore have, from our point of view, one great merit, and from the point of view of others, one great fault. They have made their work literature rather than science, and told us of the Irish peasantry rather than of the primitive religion of mankind, or whatever else the folk-lorists are on the gad after. To be considered scientists they should have tabulated all their tales in forms like grocers’ bills—item the fairy king, item the queen. Instead of this they have caught the very voice of the people, the very pulse of life, each giving what was most noticed in his day. Croker and Lover, full of the ideas of harum-scarum Irish gentility, saw everything humorized. The impulse of the Irish literature of their time came from a class that did not—mainly for political reasons—take the populace seriously, and imagined the country as a humorist’s Arcadia; its passion, its gloom, its tragedy, they knew nothing of. What they did was not wholly false; they merely magnified an irresponsible type, found oftenest among boatmen, carmen, and gentlemen’s servants, into the type of a whole nation, and created the stage Irishman. The writers of ’Forty-eight, and the famine combined, burst their bubble. Their work had the dash as well as the shallowness of an ascendant and idle class, and in Croker is touched everywhere with beauty—a gentle Arcadian beauty. Carleton, a peasant born, has in many of his stories—I have been only able to give a few of the slightest—more especially in his ghost stories, a much more serious way with him, for all his humor. Kennedy, an old bookseller in Dublin, who seems to have had a something of genuine belief in the fairies, came next in time. He has far less literary faculty, but is wonderfully accurate, giving often the very words the stories were told in. But the best book since Croker is Lady Wilde’s Ancient Legends. The humor has all given way to pathos and tenderness. We have here the innermost heart of the Celt in the moments he has grown to love through years of persecution, when, cushioning himself about with dreams, and hearing fairy-songs in the twilight, he ponders on the soul and on the dead. Here is the Celt, only it is the Celt dreaming.
Besides these are two writers of importance, who have published, so far, nothing in book shape—Miss Letitia Maclintock and Mr. Douglas Hyde. Miss Maclintock writes accurately and beautifully the half Scotch dialect of Ulster; and Mr. Douglas Hyde is now preparing a volume of folk tales in Gaelic, having taken them down, for the most part, word for word among the Gaelic speakers of Roscommon and Galway. He is, perhaps, most to be trusted of all. He knows the people thoroughly. Others see a phase of Irish life; he understands all its elements. His work is neither humorous nor mournful; it is simply life. I hope he may put some of his gatherings into ballads, for he is the last of our ballad-writers of the school of Walsh and Callanan—men whose work seems fragrant with turf smoke. And this brings to mind the chapbooks. They are to be found brown with turf smoke on cottage shelves, and are, or were, sold on every hand by the pedlars, but cannot be found in any library of this city of the Sassanach. “The Royal Fairy Tales,” “The Hibernian Tales,” and “The Legends of the Fairies” are the fairy literature of the people.
Several specimens of our fairy poetry are given. It is more like the fairy poetry of Scotland than of England. The personages of English fairy literature are merely, in most cases, mortals beautifully masquerading. Nobody ever believed in such fairies. They are romantic bubbles from Provence. Nobody ever laid new milk on their doorstep for them.
As to my own part in this book, I have tried to make it representative, as far as so few pages would allow, of every kind of Irish folk-faith. The reader will perhaps wonder that in all my notes I have not rationalized a single hobgoblin. I seek for shelter to the words of Socrates.*
“Phædrus. I should like to know, Socrates, whether the place is not somewhere here at which Boreas is said to have carried off Orithyia from the banks of the Ilissus.
“Socrates. That is the tradition.
“Phædrus. And is this the exact spot? The little stream is delightfully clear and bright; I can fancy that there might be maidens playing near.
“Socrates. I believe the spot is not exactly here, but about a quarter-of-a-mile lower down, where you cross to the temple of Artemis, and I think that there is some sort of an altar of Boreas at the place.
“Phædrus. I do not recollect; but I beseech you to tell me, Socrates, do you believe this tale?
“Socrates. The wise are doubtful, and I should not be singular if, like them, I also doubted. I might have a rational explanation that Orithyia was playing with Pharmacia, when a northern gust carried her over the neighboring rocks; and this being the manner of her death, she was said to have been carried away by Boreas. There is a discrepancy, however, about the locality. According to another version of the story, she was taken from the Areopagus, and not from this place. Now I quite acknowledge that these allegories are very nice, but he is not to be envied who has to invent them; much labor and ingenuity will be required of him; and when he has once begun, he must go on and rehabilitate centaurs and chimeras dire. Gorgons and winged steeds flow in apace, and numberless other inconceivable and portentous monsters. And if he is sceptical about them, and would fain reduce them one after another to the rules of probability, thi
s sort of crude philosophy will take up all his time. Now, I have certainly not time for such inquiries. Shall I tell you why? I must first know myself, as the Delphian inscription says; to be curious about that which is not my business, while I am still in ignorance of my own self, would be ridiculous. And, therefore, I say farewell to all this; the common opinion is enough for me. For, as I was saying, I want to know not about this, but about myself. Am I, indeed, a wonder more complicated and swollen with passion than the serpent Typho, or a creature of gentler and simpler sort, to whom nature has given a diviner and lowlier destiny?” I have to thank Messrs. Macmillan, and the editors of Belgravia, All the Year Round, and Monthly Packet, for leave to quote from Patrick Kennedy’s Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts, and Miss Maclintock’s articles respectively; Lady Wilde, for leave to give what I would from her Ancient Legends of Ireland (Ward & Downey); and Mr. Douglas Hyde, for his three unpublished stories, and for valuable and valued assistance in several ways; and also Mr. Allingham, and other copyright holders, for their poems. Mr. Allingham’s poems are from Irish Songs and Poems (Reeves and Turner); Fergusson’s, from Sealey, Bryers & Walker’s shilling reprint; my own and Miss O’Leary’s from Ballads and Poems of Young Ireland, 1888, a little anthology published by Gill & Sons, Dublin.