150. IfZ, Himmler to Pohl, May 29, 1942, ND: NO-719.
151. For example, see Glücks to Lagerärzte, December 28, 1942, in NMGB, Buchenwald, 257–58.
152. For this and the previous two paragraphs, see Wachsmann, Prisons, 208–17, 223–26, 284–98, 392–93, quote on 285; StANü, Pohl to Himmler, September 30, 1943, Anlage, ND: PS-1469; Jochmann, Monologe, 271–72.
153. Marszałek, Majdanek, 71, 167; Czech, Kalendarium, 386–87, 395–96; Wachsmann, Prisons, 200–201, 325.
154. Himmler to all Hauptamtschefs, December 29, 1942, in Heiber, Reichsführer!, 218–20; Kershaw, Nemesis, 538–50.
155. Reference to Pohl’s letter in BArchB, NS 3/426, Bl. 13: Chef Sipo und SD to Pohl, December 31, 1942. More generally, see BStU, MfS HA IX/11 ZUV 4/23, Bl. 329–46: Vernehmungsprotokoll A. Kaindl, September 16, 1946, Bl. 322.
156. Witte et al., Dienstkalender, 643; Himmler to Pohl, December 15, 1942, in Heiber, Reichsführer!, 216.
157. For the order, which refers specifically to Polish resisters, see Himmler to Pohl, mid-December 1942, in Pilichowski et al., Obozy, ill. 135–36; Kaienburg, “Vernichtung,” 304.
158. USHMM, RG-11.001M.05, reel 75, 504–2–8, Müller to Befehlshaber der Sipo et al., December 17, 1942, underlined in the original.
159. Müller to Himmler, December 16, 1942, IMT, vol. 27, 251–53, ND: 1472–PS.
160. USHMM, RG-11.001M.05, reel 75, 504–2–8, Müller to Befehlshaber der Sipo et al., December 17, 1942.
161. Himmler to HSSPF in Russia et al., January 6, 1943, in Heiber, Reichsführer!, quote on 225; Himmler to Oberg, January 18, 1943, ibid., quote on 223; Himmler to Krüger, January 1943, TWC, vol. 5, 618–19; Longerich, Himmler, 669–71, 678–80.
162. Schulte, “London,” 223; Piper, Zahl, table D.
163. Foreign workers from the Soviet Union, for example, were only supposed to be released from the KL in exceptional cases; BA Berlin, NS 3/426, Bl. 41: WVHA-D to LK, February 26, 1943.
164. StANü, Pohl to Himmler, September 30, 1943, Anlage, ND: PS-1469.
165. BArchB, NS 3/426, Bl. 13: Chef Sipo und SD to Pohl, December 31, 1942.
166. Glücks to Lagerärzte, December 28, 1942, in NMGB, Buchenwald, 257–58. See also Himmler to Pohl, mid-December 1942, in Pilichowski et al., Obozy, ill. 135–36; IfZ, Dienstanweisung für SlF E, November 7, 1941, ND: PS-3685; BArchB, DO 1/32593, WVHA-D to LK, December 2, 1942.
167. BArchB, NS 3/426, Bl. 14: Glücks to LK, January 20, 1943; Himmler to Pohl, mid-December 1942, in Pilichowski et al., Obozy, ill. 135–36.
168. APMO, IZ-13/89, Bl. 168–72: Pohl to LK, October 26, 1943.
169. Ibid.
170. Pohl, “Zwangsarbeiterlager,” 425; Spoerer, Zwangsarbeit, 97–99.
171. Himmler to Pohl, mid-December 1942, in Pilichowski et al., Obozy, ill. 135–36; Buggeln, Arbeit, 131.
172. Himmler to Pohl, December 15, 1942, in Heiber, Reichsführer!, 216.
173. Quotes in APMO, IZ-13/89, Bl. 168–72: Pohl to LK, October 26, 1943. See also Kaienburg, “Vernichtung,” 318–19, 352; idem, “Systematisierung,” 66 (n. 25).
174. BArchB, NS 3/425, Bl. 118: Himmler to RSHA and WVHA-D, October 29, 1942. Although Himmler’s order was restricted to relatives, the Red Cross soon dispatched packages, too; Favez, Red, 69–71, 94–99.
175. Quotes in Laqueur, Schreiben, 48; NAL, WO 235/305, Bl. 135–42: Examination of H. Dziedziecka, December 10, 1946, Bl. 137. See also Helweg-Larsen et al., Famine, 47–48, 98, 141, 351; Kosmala, “Häftlinge,” 108.
176. For one estimate, see Wagner, Produktion, 464–65.
177. OdT, vol. 7, 66; Favez, Red, 70, 75; Strebel, Ravensbrück, 196; Mettbach, Behringer, “Wer,” 37.
178. Kupfer-Koberwitz, Tagebücher, 344–45, entry August 9, 1944.
179. Buggeln, Arbeit, 132–35; Kaienburg, “Vernichtung,” 317–18; Kaienburg, Wirtschaft, 949. In state prisons, which came under the same regulations, no more than one-third of all prisoners received extra rations by summer 1942; ThHStAW, GStA OLG Jena, Nr. 430: Arbeitstagung am 30.6 und 1.7.1942, Bl. 258.
180. Himmler to Pohl, mid-December 1942, in Pilichowski et al., Obozy, ill. 135–36.
181. See also Keller and Otto, “Kriegsgefangene,” 31–32.
182. See chapter 7.
183. StANü, WVHA to LK, April 27, 1943, ND: NO-1007. In some camps, Action 14f13 apparently continued in some fashion, following Himmler’s intervention. After the war, the Ravensbrück camp doctor testified that a physician from Berlin had picked out “mentally disturbed” prisoners, who were later gassed in Hartheim; Strebel, Ravensbrück, 337.
184. Glücks to Lagerärzte, December 28, 1942, in NMGB, Buchenwald, 257–58.
185. Ley and Morsch, Medizin, 69, 100; Ley, “Kollaboration,” 123, 126, 132; Hahn, Grawitz, 160 (placing the shift in SS practice around 1941); Strzelecka, “Hospitals,” 314, 320, 328; Kaienburg, “Vernichtung,” 372–75; Wagner, Produktion, 298.
186. Kaienburg, “Vernichtung,” 323–24.
187. Quote in Hohmann and Wieland, Konzentrationslager, 39.
188. Maršálek, Mauthausen, 160–66; Kaienburg, “Vernichtung,” 374.
189. APMO, Proces Höss, Hd 6, Bl. 51–62: O. Wolken, “Chronik Auschwitz II (B II a),” n.d. (c. spring 1945), Bl. 53. Transports of sick prisoners from other KL to Auschwitz started no later than autumn 1942; NAL, HW 16/66, “II. Concentration Camps,” November 27, 1942; AdsD, KE, E. Büge, Bericht, n.d. (1945/46), 143.
190. Kaienburg, “Vernichtung,” 327–28; APMO, IZ-13/89, Bl. 168–72: Pohl to LK, October 26, 1943; Zámečník, Dachau, 251; BStU, MfS HA IX/11, ZUV 4, Akte 23, Vernehmungsprotokoll A. Kaindl, August 20, 1946, Bl. 246; BArchB, NS 3/426, Bl. 16: Glücks to LK, January 20, 1943; KB Nr. 4/44, February 22, 1944, in Frei et al., Kommandanturbefehle, 412–13.
191. BArchB, NS 3/426, Bl. 121: WVHA-D to LK, July 27, 1943; ibid., Bl. 122–28: Aufgaben und Pflichten der Wachposten, n.d. (1943), Bl. 125; Sprenger, Groβ-Rosen, 179–80.
192. Wagner, IG Auschwitz, 223; OdT, vol. 3, 349; Gedenkstätte Buchenwald, Buchenwald, 58–59.
193. Bessmann and Buggeln, “Befehlsgeber,” 530.
194. For the historiography, see Schulte, Zwangsarbeit, 395–96 (n. 79).
195. Maurer to LK, June 7, 1942, in Schnabel, Macht, doc. D 69.
196. Gustloff-Werke to LK Buchenwald, June 16, 1942, in Schnabel, Macht, doc. D 72.
197. Pohl to LK, November 22, 1943, TWC, vol. 5, 370–72, emphasis in the original (mistakenly dated January 22 in this printed version). See also Wagner, Produktion, 381.
198. StANü, Pohl to Himmler, September 30, 1943, Anlage, ND: PS-1469; ibid., Himmler to Pohl, October 8, 1943.
199. Broszat, “Konzentrationslager,” 438, 443; Pingel, Häftlinge, 183.
200. Kárný, “‘Vernichtung.’” More generally, see Orth, System, 219–20 (though Orth herself indirectly uses figures from Pohl’s report, via the works of Broszat and Pingel; ibid., 217, n. 208; 219, n. 219); Piper, Zahl, 160; Kagan, “Standesamt,” 155; BArchB, NS 4/Na 6, Bl. 29: WVHA-D to LK, September 20, 1943.
201. Kárný suggests that Pohl’s figures masked an increase in the relative number of deaths; “‘Vernichtung,’” 145.
202. Buggeln, Arbeit, 41–42; idem, System, 72.
203. Piper, Zahl, 158–62.
204. Langbein, Menschen, 74. See also Piper, “Exploitation,” 134; Hayes, “Auschwitz,” 336; Pilecki, Auschwitz, quote on 278.
205. StANü, Pohl to Himmler, September 30, 1943, Anlage, ND: PS-1469.
206. Strebel, Ravensbrück, 524; OdT, vol. 4, 44–46; Freund, “Mauthausen,” 261; Kranebitter, Zahlen.
207. Wachsmann, Prisons, 288–98; Pingel, Häftlinge, 186.
208. See also Buggeln, Arbeit, 42.
209. Quote in HLSL, Rascher to Himmler, April 5, 1942, ND: 1971–PS-a. See also Ebbinghaus, Roth, “Medizinverbrechen,” 127–31; Knoll, “Humanexperimente”; Klee, Auschwitz, 220; Weindling, Victims, chapter 9; Rascher to Himmler, May 15, 1941, ND: 1602–PS, in Mitsc
herlich and Mielke, Medizin, 20–21. My thanks to Albert Knoll for identifying Siegmund Wassing.
210. HLSL, Himmler to Rascher, April 13, 1942, ND: 1971–PS-b; BArchL, B 162/21846, Bl. 167–254: W. Neff, “Recht oder Unrecht,” n.d., Bl. 222–23; Witte et al., Dienstkalender, 414; BArchB, Film 44563, O. Pohl, “Medizinische Versuche,” July 23, 1946, p. 2.
211. Schmidt, Brandt, 257–96, quote on 294; Weindling, Victims, table 9 (my thanks to Prof. Weindling for sharing his manuscript). For categorizing the different medical experiments, see OdT, vol. 1, 167; Freyhofer, Medical Trial.
212. OdT, vol. 1, 165–67; Cocks, “Old as New,” 178–79; Roelcke, “Introduction,” 14.
213. Benz, “Rascher,” 193–96; Danckwortt, “Wissenschaft,” 140–41.
214. Stoll, “Sonntag,” 920–24; Ley and Morsch, Medizin, 329–35.
215. Weindling, Victims, tables 6 and 7.
216. NAL, HW 16/22, GPD Nr. 3, November 26, 1942.
217. Quote in Stoll, “Sonntag,” 924.
218. For these terms, see Klee, Auschwitz, 380; Sachse, “Menschenversuche,” 7; Tillion, Ravensbrück, 182; NARA, RG 549, 000–50–9, Box 437, Nebe to Mrugowsky, February 29, 1944.
219. Hahn, Grawitz, 460; Schmidt, Brandt, 256–57.
220. Pohl to Brandt, August 16, 1943, in Heiber, Reichsführer!, 284.
221. Benz, “Rascher,” 192.
222. Kater, “Ahnenerbe,” 255–57; Hahn, Grawitz, 401–402.
223. Hahn, Grawitz, 225, 280–83, 372–75, 403–404.
224. Himmler to Rascher, October 24, 1942, in Heiber, Reichsführer!, 205–206; Benz, “Rascher,” 204; Schmidt, “Medical Ethics,” 601–602; Wolters, Tuberkulose, 94–100.
225. For this and the previous paragraph, see Benz, “Rascher,” 191–210. See also Hahn, Grawitz, 60–61.
226. For this and the previous paragraph, see Ebbinghaus and Roth, “Medizinverbrechen,” 136–46, Michalowski quote on 142; StAMü, StA Nr. 34433, Bl. 115–16: Vernehmungsniederschrift G. Tauber, August 17, 1948, Polish prisoner quote on 115; BArchL, B 162/21846, Bl. 167–254: W. Neff, “Recht oder Unrecht,” n.d., Bl. 225–27, 235–36; Mitscherlich and Mielke, Medizin, 51–61.
227. BArchL, B 162/21846, Bl. 167–254: W. Neff, “Recht oder Unrecht,” n.d., Bl. 241–42, quote on 221; Mitscherlich and Mielke, Medizin, 65–66.
228. APMO, Proces Maurer, 5a, Bl. 150: Dr. Rascher, Bericht über KL-Dirnen, November 5, 1942, ND: NO-323; IfZ, Himmler to Pohl, November 15, 1942, ND: NO-1583; Kater, “Ahnenerbe,” 236.
229. Quote in Himmler to Rascher, October 24, 1942, in Heiber, Reichsführer!, 205–206.
230. Mitscherlich and Mielke, Medizin, 61–65; Holzhaider, “‘Schwester Pia,’” 368–69; Schalm, Überleben, 187.
231. Himmler to Rascher, October 24, 1942, in Heiber, Reichsführer!, 205–206, quote on 206; IfZ, Himmler to Pohl, November 15, 1942, ND: PS-1583; APMO, Proces Maurer, 5a, Bl. 150: Dr. Rascher, Bericht über KL-Dirnen, November 5, 1942, ND: NO-323; Witte et al., Dienstkalender, 612; DAP, Vernehmung F. Hofmann, April 22, 1959, 3858; JVL, JAO, Review of Proceedings, United States v. Weiss, n.d. (1946), 17–18; Kater, “Ahnenerbe,” 236–37; Longerich, Himmler, 760–61.
232. Benz, “Rascher,” 210–12; Mitscherlich and Mielke, Medizin, 70–71; BArchL, B 162/21846, Bl. 67–100: Kripo München, Abschlussbericht, June 25, 1944, Bl. 90–96.
233. Kater, “Ahnenerbe,” 239–43; NARA, M-1174, roll 3, Bl. 1441–65: Examination of E. Mahl, December 6, 1945; BArchL, B 162/21846, Bl. 53–57: Kripo München, Zwischenbericht, May 26, 1944; ibid., Kripo München, Abschlussbericht, June 25, 1944; DaA, Nr. 7566, K. Schecher, “Rückblick auf Dachau,” n.d., 249.
234. Benz, “Versuche,” 93–95.
235. Hulverscheidt, “Menschen”; Klee, Auschwitz, 117–25; Weindling, Victims, chapter 10.
236. JVL, JAO, Review of Proceedings, United States v. Weiss, n.d. (1946), 17, 45.
237. Testimony of W. Karołewska, in Mitscherlich and Mielke, Medizin, 141–43; Klier, Kaninchen, 69; Schmidt, Justice, 182–83.
238. For this and the previous paragraph, see Mitscherlich and Mielke, Medizin, 131–39; Hahn, Grawitz, 458–62; OdT, vol. 1, 171–73; Schmidt, “‘Scars,’” 31–32; Strebel, Ravensbrück, 256–58. More generally, see Ebbinghaus and Roth, “Kriegswunden.”
239. Schmaltz, Kampfstoff-Forschung, 521–54, 562, quote on 550.
240. Wolters, Tuberkulose; Ley and Morsch, Medizin, 338–61.
241. Weindling, Epidemics, 352–63; idem, Victims, chapter 10; Kogon, Theory, 149–53; OdT, vol. 1, 169–70; Hahn, Grawitz, 326–29, 396–97; Hackett, Buchenwald, 73; Gedenkstätte Buchenwald, Buchenwald, 200–201; Werther, “Menschenversuche”; HLSL, Anklageschrift gegen Koch, 1944, ND: NO-2366, pp. 65–67; BArchB (ehem. BDC), SSO, Hoven, Waldemar, 10.2.1903. For an overview of the Buchenwald typhus experiments, see also Allen, Laboratory, chapter 11. In addition to prisoners infected for the trials, the Buchenwald SS used inmates who had already caught typhus. For wider context, see Süss, “Volkskörper,” 226–27, 236–37.
242. Ley and Morsch, Medizin, 361–70.
243. Kubica, “Crimes,” 319, 328–29, Wirths’s quote on 328; Keller, Günzburg, 20–35; Klee, Auschwitz, 459, 471–72.
244. For this and the previous paragraph, see Keller, Günzburg, 17–18, 39, 73–94; Kubica, “Crimes,” 318.
245. Klee, Auschwitz, 473–75, 480–82, 489, quote on 475; Kubica, “Crimes,” 325–26; Keller, Günzburg, 41–42.
246. For this and the previous paragraph, see Kubica, “Crimes,” 318, 321–25, 326; Keller, Günzburg, 40–41, 83–84; Klee, Auschwitz, 477–79, 488–90; Piekut-Warszawska, “Kinder,” 227–29. Quote in WL, P.III.h. No. 161, E. Herskovits to Familie Karo, May 21–23, 1945.
247. For this and the previous three paragraphs, see Strzelecka, “Experiments”; Hahn, Grawitz, 275–78; Lifton and Hackett, “Nazi Doctors,” 306–308; Beischl, Wirths, 117–46; Eichmüller, Keine Generalamnestie, 135–42; Witte et al., Dienstkalender, 480; Schilter, “Schumann,” 101–104; Clauberg to Himmler, June 7, 1943, in Heiber, Reichsführer!, 159–60; Weindling, “Opfer,” 91–92; idem, Victims, chapter 14; Weinberger, Fertility Experiments (Dr. Schumann also carried out some experiments in Ravensbrück in 1944). Quotes in Fragebogen Chopfenberg, n.d., in Schnabel, Macht, 277; APMO, Proces Maurer, 5a, Bl. 163–68: EE by C. Balitzki, November 22, 1946, ND: NO-819.
248. Klee, Auschwitz, 356–66, 371–78, Hirt quote on 359; Steegemann, Struthof, 384–86, 395–400; H.-J. Lang, “Die Spur der Skelette,” Spiegel Online, accessed January 8, 2010; Kater, “Ahnenerbe,” 245–55; Kogon et al., Massentötungen, 274–76; Heinemann, “Rasse,” 535–39. Only in 2003 were all victims identified by name.
249. See also Hahn et al., “Medizin,” 17.
250. Hahn, Grawitz, 500.
251. BArchL, B 162/7997, Bl. 525–603: Fall IV, Nuremberg, June 30, 1947, Bl. 580.
252. Benz, “Rascher,” 202, 208; Kater, “Ahnenerbe,” 234, 263.
253. APMO, Proces Höss, Hd 2/1, Bl. 10–15: M. Stoppelman, “Meine Erlebnisse in Auschwitz,” n.d. (c. spring 1945), prisoner doctor quotes on 15; Klee, Auschwitz, 63, 92, 488, Verschuer quote on 458–59; Sachse, “Menschenversuche,” 10–14; Keller, Günzburg, 39, 41, 88, 92; Hulverscheidt, “Menschen,” 122.
254. Mitscherlich and Mielke, Medizin, 54–61, 151; Klee, Auschwitz, 235–43; Hahn, Grawitz, 328–29, 458–59; Kater, “Ahnenerbe,” 262; Ebbinghaus and Roth, “Medizinverbrechen,” 137; Neumann, “Heeressanitätsinspektion,” 129.
255. Klee, Auschwitz, 284–321, quotes on 279, 285; Maršálek, Mauthausen, 176–77 (with the spelling Helmut Vetter).
256. Cocks, “Old as New,” 180, 190; Evans, Third Reich in Power, 445–46; Kater, “Ahnenerbe,” 262; idem., “Criminal,” 79–81.
257. Mitscherlich and Mielke, Medizin, 96–102; NARA, RG 549, 000–50–9, Box 437, Himmler to chief of the Sipo, February 27, 1944; Klee, Auschwitz, 126, 310–12.
258. Kater, “Ahnenerbe,” quotes on 243–44; Mitscherlich and Mielke,
Medizin, 132.
259. Wachsmann, Prisons, 316–17, quote on 317.
260. Nyiszli, Auschwitz (written in 1946), quotes on 51, 57, 101; Klee, Auschwitz, 489–90; Evans, “Introduction.”
261. Steiner and Steiner, “Zwillinge,” quote on 128.
262. Quotes in HLSL, Grawitz to Himmler, June 28, 1944, ND: NO-179; Benz, “Rascher,” 204. See also BArchL, B 162/21846, Bl. 167–254: W. Neff, “Recht oder Unrecht,” n.d., Bl. 219–20; Weindling, Victims, tables 3, 4, and 5.
263. Schwarberg, SS-Arzt, 7–9, 152; Weindling, “Opfer,” 90.
264. The WVHA had already contemplated such a move before, in autumn 1942 and summer 1943, though these early plans for moving many thousands of Jews from Auschwitz to arms factories deep inside the Third Reich had come to nothing; BArchB, NS 19/14, Bl. 131–33: Pohl to Himmler, September 16, 1942; Maurer to Höss, September 4, 1943, in Tuchel, Inspektion, 128; Herbert, “Arbeit,” 222–24. Quote in HLSL, WVHA to LK, October 5, 1942, ND: 3677–PS.
9. Camps Unbound
1. For this and the previous paragraphs, see Wagner, Produktion, 184–94, 376, 459, 485–86, Van Dijk quote on 189; idem, Mittelbau-Dora, 48; Michel, Dora, 66–75; Sellier, Dora, 58–61; Eisfeld, Mondsüchtig, 120; NARA, M-1079, roll 5, Vernehmung W. Hein, April 16, 1945; ibid., roll 6, examination of C. Jay, August 7, 1947; ibid., examination of H. Iwes, August 12, 1947, quote on 299; testimony of K. Kahr, April 10, 1947, TWC, vol. 5, 396. My thanks to Jens-Christian Wagner for further details on the sleeping tunnels.
2. For this and the previous paragraph, see Wagner, Mittelbau-Dora, 31–37, 161; Wagner, Produktion, 89; Neufeld, Rocket, 176, 184–204; Eisfeld, Mondsüchtig, 112–18; IfZ, F 37/3, Himmler diary, entries June 28 and 29, 1943.
3. Himmler to Pohl, December 17, 1943, cited in Wagner, Produktion, 89. More generally, see Fröbe, “Arbeitseinsatz,” 352–56.
4. Freund, Zement, 449–57; Wagner, Produktion, 87–88; OdT, vol. 4, 354–60, 416–20. Further underground projects were under way in existing KL; ibid., 375.
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