by Julie Winch
New Mexico, 86, 90
New Netherland, 11
New Orleans, 4, 18, 46, 47, 48, 53, 64, 70, 78, 105–6, 126
New York, 11–12, 42, 43, 91, 106
New York City, 11, 12, 24, 27, 28, 40, 42–43, 53, 55, 63, 64, 77, 106–7, 113, 117, 122, 125, 126, 127
New York Manumission Society, 68, 80
Newport, Rhode Island, 14, 16, 36
Newport African Union, 36, 37, 53, 57
newspapers, black-owned, 78, 113–15
night soil men, black, 69
North Carolina, 8, 24, 26, 44, 45, 73, 77, 89
North Star (newspaper), 78
Northup, Solomon, 75
Northwest Ordinance, 35, 49
Nova Scotia, 28
Noyes Academy, Canaan, New Hampshire, 79
Ohio, 49
Omaha, Nebraska, 91
Oregon, 90
Orleans Territory, 47
oyster cellars, black-owned, 64, 119
Pacific Northwest, 90
Parrott, Russell (printer), 110
passports, refusal to issue to blacks, 68, 130–32
Payne, Reverend Daniel Alexander, 67
Peg (free woman of color), 97
Penn, William, 13
Pennsylvania, 13, 17, 20, 29–30, 42, 98–99, 108–9; Gradual Abolition Law (1780), 29–30
Pennsylvania Abolition Society, 29–30, 67, 68, 80
Pensacola, Florida, 49
Peronneau, Nancy, 99–100
Peronneau, Richard (carpenter), 99–100
personal liberty laws, 87
“Peter the Doctor” (free man), 12
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 13, 24, 27, 34, 36–37, 40, 42, 52–56, 59, 64, 73, 76, 78, 97, 98, 104–5, 113, 123, 124, 128
Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, 121
physicians, black, 66, 126, 129. See also bleeders; dentists; healers; midwives
Pico, Andreas (Mexican general), 83
Pico, Pio (Mexican governor), 83
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 126
plaçage, 70
planters, free black, 61–62, 123
Poor, Salem (soldier), 25
porters, black, 69
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 15, 31, 101
Potter, Eliza (hairdresser), 66
Presbyterians, black, 52
Prince Hall Masons, 55
privateers, black, 27, 28, 34
prostitution, 69–70
Providence, Rhode Island, 55, 73
public schools, 79–80
public space, black access to, 73, 128
public transportation, segregation on, 75, 125, 127–28
Quakers. See Society of Friends
race riots, 73
Raleigh, North Carolina, 72–73
registration, required of free blacks, 45, 73, 74, 108–9
Remond family (Salem, Massachusetts), 66
Remond, John (caterer), 64, 118–19, 131
Remond, Nancy Lenox (baker and hairdresser), 66
Remond, Sarah Parker, 130–32
resettlement (voluntary), 36, 37, 92, 126–27; in Africa, 57–58, 59; on the American frontier, 58, 59; in Britain’s West Indian colonies, 72; in Canada, 72; in Haiti, 71–72, 88, 89, 113. See also American Colonization Society; Liberia; Sierra Leone
residential segregation, 70–71
Resolute Beneficial Society (Washington, D.C.), 110–11
Rhode Island, 14, 15, 20, 25, 26, 31, 42, 98–99
Rhode Island Black Regiment. See First Rhode Island Regiment
Richmond, Virginia, 48
Roberts, Benjamin, 79
Roberts, Fred (runaway slave), 122
Roberts, John Jenkins (merchant), 71, 88
Roberts, Robert (writer), 64
Roberts, Sarah, 79
Rock, John S. (doctor and lawyer), 66, 129
Royal African Company, British, 8
Royal Navy, British, 22, 27
Russwurm, John Brown, 77–78, 113–14
sailors, black, 14, 16, 22, 27, 54, 68–69, 75, 89, 112, 115, 116–17, 128
St. Augustine, Florida, 2
Saint Domingue, 40, 41, 46. See also Haiti
St. George’s Methodist Episcopal Church, Philadelphia, 52
St. Louis, Missouri, 53, 65, 70, 74, 89, 129–30
St. Thomas’s African Episcopal Church, Philadelphia, 52
Salem, Massachusetts, 64, 66, 118–19, 131
Salem, Peter (soldier), 25
San Francisco, California, 83, 125–26
Savannah, Georgia, 64, 122
schools, black, 17, 55, 67, 68, 78–80, 110–11
Scott, Dred, 91–92
Scott, Harriet, 91–92
second-hand clothing, black retailers of, 65, 115
“servant,” vagueness of term, 13–14
Sharp Street Methodist Church, Baltimore, 107
shipowners, black, 69, 83, 116–17, 125–26
Sierra Leone, 28, 36, 37, 57, 58
siete partidas, 2
slave catchers, 42, 86, 89, 121, 122
slave owners, black, 3, 6, 9, 41, 47, 62, 86, 100, 123
Smith, James McCune (physician), 66
Society of Friends (Quakers), 13, 17, 29, 30, 57
soldiers, black men as: in colonial era, 2, 3, 4, 9, 11, 18; in Revolutionary War, 23–27, 28–29, 33, 101, 108, 118; volunteer to serve, 93, 101, 105–6, 128, 129; in War of 1812, 47, 48
Somersett, James, 19
Somersett case (1772), 19
Sons of Liberty, 22
the South. See Lower South; Upper South; individual colonies and states
South Carolina, 8–9, 10, 20, 26–27, 32, 33, 34, 40, 45, 74, 88, 89, 99–100, 111–12, 118
Spanish: as colonizers, 1, 46; as slaveholders, 2, 3, 48
Spanish Seven-Part Law. See siete partidas
Stanly, Benjamin, 123–24
Stanly, John Carruthers (planter), 123–24
Stanly, Joseph, 123–24
steamboat stewards, black, 64–65
Stephens, George E. (writer), 128
Stewart, Charles (slave owner), 19
Stewart, James W. (businessman), 117
Stewart, Maria W. (orator), 117–18
stores, black-owned, 65, 115, 118, 120
Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 87
street vendors, black, 64
Sturgis, Stokeley (slave owner), 102
Susanne (slave), 129
Talcott Street Church, Hartford, Connecticut, 53
taxes, discriminatory, 45, 49, 73, 112
teachers, black, 67, 68, 127, 129
Temple Street Church, New Haven, Connecticut, 53
Tennessee, 45, 74, 89
Texas, 2, 82, 86
Thacher, George (congressman), 104
Thomas, James (barber), 74, 89, 124–25
Thomas, Sally (laundress), 74, 124
Thompson, Harriet. See Clamorgan, Harriet
Thompson, Mary, 74
Toussaint L’Ouverture, François Dominique, 40
Three-Fifths Compromise, 35
Traveller, Henry, 98
Trinidad, 72
Turner, Nat, 72
Tye, Colonel (soldier), 24
Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe), 87
undertakers, black, 64
Upper South, 43, 44, 45, 49, 63, 71, 73, 107. See also individual colonies and states
U.S. Navy, 69
U.S. Supreme Court, 87, 91–92, 129
Utah, 86
Vermont, 15, 29, 32, 41
Vesey, Denmark, 74, 111–12
Vigilance Committees, 81
Violetas (runaway slave), 98
Virginia, 5–8, 20, 23, 24, 26, 33, 40, 44, 54, 89, 95–96
Virginia John (runaway slave), 97
voting rights, 42, 43, 75, 76, 82, 90, 92, 106–7, 130. See also disfranchisement
Walker, David (writer), 65, 77, 115–16, 117
Walker, Quock, 30
War of 1812, 47, 58, 69, 108
“war
ning out,” 15–16, 31, 32, 42
Washington, George, 24, 25, 28
Washington, D.C., 54, 55, 58, 65, 66, 78, 109, 110
Washington (territory), 90
Way, Flora, 122
White, Jacob C. Sr. (bleeder and dentist), 67
Wilkinson, Robert Jerome (barber), 74–75
Willson, John (banker), 122–23
Willson, Joseph (writer), 71, 122–23
Wilmington, North Carolina, 115, 122
Wilmot, David (congressman), 83
Wilmot Proviso, 83
Wisconsin (territory), 92
women, status of free black, 77, 86, 117–18
yellow fever epidemic (1793), 55
About the Author
Julie Winch is professor of history at the University of Massachusetts Boston, where she has taught since 1985. She has published five books on the lives of free people of African descent in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century America, including The Clamorgans: One Family’s History of Race in America and A Gentleman of Color: The Life of James Forten. She has been the recipient of fellowships from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the American Antiquarian Society, the John Carter Brown Library, Mystic Seaport, and the Beinecke Library. Her biography of James Forten won the American Historical Association’s Wesley-Logan Prize.