Brauchitsch, Walther von (1881-1948)
Appointed field marshal in 1940. In 1938 succeeded Werner von Fritsch as commander in chief of the army. Attempted in vain to have Fritsch rehabilitated. Dismissed after the first setbacks on the eastern front in December 1941. Knew about the opposition to Hitler and was critical of his policy of aggression but nevertheless went along with the Führer, largely out of personal weakness. Described the attempted assassination of July 20 as “the mad act of a small number of men who have forgotten all about honor.”
Bussche-Streithorst, Baron Axel von dem (1919-93)
Career officer with the rank of major. Witnessed the mass shooting of Jews in Dubno in 1942. Declared thereafter that there were only three ways for an officer to preserve his honor: die in battle, desert, or rebel. Planned in early 1944 to kill both Hitler and himself by detonating a bomb at a public ceremony. Failed when chance events prevented Hitler from coming. Avoided arrest in July 1944. Studied law after 1945. Counselor at the German embassy in Washington from 1954 to 1958.
Canaris, Wilhelm (1887-1945)
Career officer with the rank of admiral. Sympathized with Hitler’s resentment of the conditions imposed at Versailles and his anti-Communism but after 1933 came to despise the brutality of the Nazis. Was chief of OKW Military Intelligence from 1935 to 1944. Began to oppose the Nazis actively after the Fritsch affair. Grew resigned, though, after the Munich agreement. In 1939 he and Hans Oster asked Josef Müller, a lawyer, to attempt through the Vatican to sound out the possibilities for maintaining peace.
In late May 1940, when it was discovered that the German offensive in the West had been betrayed, Canaris managed to allay the suspicions directed at his office by portraying them as mere rumor. The SS continued, however, to monitor the group around Canaris and in the spring of 1943 arrested some of his closest collaborators. Dismissed as chief of Military Intelligence in February 1944 and arrested after July 20, 1944. Hanged on April 9, 1945, in the Flossenbürg concentration camp after his diaries were discovered. A controversial personality because he socialized with Heydrich, played a two-faced role as chief of the military secret service, and protected the resistance. Maintained to the end that he was not a traitor.
Dohnanyi, Hans von (1902-45)
In 1929 became personal assistant to the minister of justice, then head of the Bureau of Ministers. Systematically gathered information about the crimes and atrocities of the Nazi regime. Established contacts as early as 1938 with people in the military who opposed the Nazis. Played a leading role in planning the attempted coup of September 1938. As a result of pressure from Nazi Party headquarters in 1938, was transferred to the federal court in Leipzig. Became a special project chief in OKW Military Intelligence in August 1939. Forwarded reports from his brother-in-law, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, about the deportation of Jews to senior military leaders in the hope of spurring them to do something. Helped Jews threatened with deportation to escape. Arrested on April 5, 1943, for alleged currency violations. After July 20, 1944, some of the information he had collected about Nazi crimes and the coup attempts discovered by the Gestapo. Murdered on April 8, 1945, in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp.
Falkenhausen, Alexander von (1878-1966)
General in the infantry. From 1935 to 1938 a military adviser in China. Appointed military commander in Belgium and northern France in 1940. Dismissed on July 18, 1944, on a number of charges and arrested after July 20, 1944. Sent on the odyssey of prominent prisoners from one concentration camp to another in 1945 and then freed. Sentenced in Belgium in 1951 to twelve years of forced labor for the execution of hostages and the deportation of Jews. Released after three weeks when it was revealed he had saved many Belgian citizens from the SS.
Fellgiebel, Erich (1886-1944)
Career officer. Became chief of the army signal corps in August 1938. Closely associated with Beck and Stülpnagel since their days in the Reichswehr and came to the resistance through them. Hitler sensed from the beginning that this thoughtful, independent, and very observant man was no friend, but Fellgiebel’s expertise was absolutely essential. Played a key role in the coup attempt of July 20, 1944, as it was his task to interrupt all communications with Führer headquarters after the assassination. Was one ol the first conspirators to be arrested on the evening of July 20-21. Sentenced lo death on August 10 and executed on September 4.
Freisler, Roland (1893-1945)
Prisoner of war in Russia during World War I. Became a Bolshevik commissar and returned to Germany as a Communist. Studied law and became a lawyer. Joined NSDAP in 1925. Appointed chief personnel officer in the Prussian Ministry of Justice in 1933. In 1934 became state secretary in the Prussian and then federal Ministry of Justice. Appointed president of the People’s Court in August 1942. Killed in an Allied bombing attack in early February 1945.
Fritsch, Baron Werner von (1880-1939)
General and chief of army command from 1934 to 1935. Was outraged at the murder of generals at the time of the Night of the Long Knives but failed to protest. Appointed commander in chief of the army in 1935. Dismissed in 1938 on charges of homosexuality trumped up by the Gestapo. Cleared by a military court of honor but never fully rehabilitated. Had absolutely no inclination or ability to resist and considered Hitler, whom he admired in spite of everything, to be “Germany’s destiny.” Killed on September 22, 1939, in the German assault on Warsaw while leading his artillery regiment.
Fromm, Friedrich (1888-1945)
Army chief of armaments from 1939 to 1944 and commander of the reserve army. Knew about the conspiratorial activities in his immediate surroundings but, when the coup of July 20 failed, took up the cause of the victors. After a hasty “court-martial,” had Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg, who was his chief of staff, and three other conspirators executed at army headquarters on Bendlerstrasse late on the night of July 20, not least of all to conceal his own knowledge of the affair. Was nevertheless condemned by the People’s Court and shot.
Gersdorff, Baron Rudolph-Christoph von (1905-80)
Career officer. Graduated from the War Academy in Berlin in 1938-39 and ended up as a brigadier general. Posted to Army Group Center as an intelligence officer in 1941. Attempted in vain to win Erich von Manstein over to the resistance. On March 21, 1943, attempted unsuccessfully to blow both Hitler and himself up with a bomb while the Führer visited an exhibition at a Berlin museum. Chief of staff to the Seventh Army in 1944-45. The Gestapo failed to detect his activities on behalf of the resistance. Described the army’s oath of allegiance to Hitler after Hindenburg’s death as a “coerced oath.”
Gerstenmaier, Eugen (1906-86)
Protestant theologian. In 1933-34 became involved in the church’s struggle against the pro-Nazi “German Christians.” Held for a short time by the Gestapo. In 1936 appointed consistorial counselor in the Church Office for Foreign Relations under Bishop Theodor Heckel. Traveled abroad on behalf of the resistance. Beginning in 1940 worked in the cultural policy division of the Foreign Office. Participated in the Kreisau Circle. On July 20, 1944, went to Bendlerstrasse to support the coup and was arrested. Following a very skillful defense, was condemned by the People’s Court to seven years in prison. After the war became a member of the German Evangelical synod and a leading Christian Democratic Union politician. President of the Bundestag from 1954 to 1969.
Gisevius, Hans Bernd (1904-74)
Lawyer. Accepted a position with the Prussian political police in August 1933. Following the political murders of June 30, 1934, left government service as an assistant secretary in the federal Ministry of the Interior and entered the private sector. Played a leading role in planning the abortive military coup in 1938. In 1939 became chief of special projects for OKW Military Intelligence under Canaris. From 1940 to 1944 was the military intelligence officer in the German consulate general in Zurich. Maintained contacts with the Western Allies on behalf of the military opposition, especially with Allen W. Dulles of the Office of
Strategic Services. Shortly before July 20, 1944, traveled to Berlin and, on the appointed day, went to army headquarters ready for action. Managed to flee back to Switzerland after the coup failed. Wrote one of the eyewitness accounts of the German resistance. Testified before the international military tribunal in Nuremberg.
Goerdeler, Carl Friedrich (1884-1945)
Close to the national conservatives. Served as mayor of Leipzig from 1930 to 1037. Was also Reich price commissioner in 1931-32 and 1934-35. Had violent disagreements with the Nazis after 1935. Resigned as mayor in April 1937. Often traveled abroad and used these opportunities to make political contacts. Maintained that foreign powers should adopt a tough line toward Hitler and saw the Munich agreement as “out-and-out capitulation” on the part of the West. Became the spearhead of the civilian resistance, drafting numerous memoranda and outlines for a new political order in Germany. At first argued for maximum German claims in any peace settlement but after 1943 adopted the idea of a “European peace order.” Was deeply disappointed at first by the Allied demand for unconditional surrender, since he had been hoping for separate peace negotiations with the Western powers. Chosen by the military-civilian resistance to be the future federal chancellor. Was wanted by the Gestapo even before July 20, 1944, but managed to continue evading capture after the assassination attempt. Was finally denounced to the Gestapo and sentenced to death by the People’s Court on September 8. Hanged five months later in Plötzensee prison after lengthy interrogations during which he spoke freely about the plans and the people involved in them.
Groscurth, Helmuth (1898-1943)
Career officer. Colonel on the general staff. Joined Military Intelligence in 1935. Was a driving force in and helped organize the abortive coups in 1938 and 1939 as a liaison officer between OKW Military Intelligence and the OKH. Became OKH chief of military affairs and, in February 1942, chief of general staff to the Eleventh Army Corps in Stalingrad. Taken prisoner there in 1943 and died of typhus in March of that year.
Haeften, Hans-Bernd von (1905-44)
Lawyer. Joined the Confessional Church in 1933. Served in the diplomatic corps in Copenhagen, Vienna, and Bucharest. Became acting head of the Foreign Office’s cultural department in 1940. Refused to join the NSDAP. Was the Stauffenberg group’s confidant in the Foreign Office and a member of the Kreisau Circle. Slated to become state secretary in the Foreign Office in the future government. Arrested after July 20, 1944, and executed in Plötzensee prison on August 15.
Haeften, Werner von (1908-44)
Younger brother of Hans-Bernd von Haeften. Lawyer for a Hamburg bank. In 1939 became a first lieutenant in the reserves. Took part in the Russian campaign. After recovering from serious wounds, became Stauffenberg’s adjutant in reserve army command in November 1943. Flew with Stauffenberg to Führer headquarters in Rastenburg on July 20, 1944, and helped with final preparations for the assassination attempt. Succeeded in getting out of the Restricted Area with Stauffenberg after the bomb went off and flew with him to Berlin. Executed on the night of July 20-21 in the courtyard of army headquarters on Bendlerstrasse.
Halder, Franz (1884-1972)
Career officer. In 1938 succeeded Beck as army chief of general staff, remaining in this post until 1942. In 1938 told members of the opposition that he would support a putsch in order to avert a war in Europe. Toyed with the idea of arresting Hitler if war broke out with Britain and France, a plan that failed because of the Munich agreement. Thereafter made a strong distinction between his personal dislike of Hitler and the loyalty demanded by his position. Contributed substantially to the early German successes on the eastern front. Dismissed on September 24, 1942, for opposing Hitler’s decision to withdraw troops from the front so as to concentrate on Stalingrad. Thrown into a concentration camp after July 20, 1944. Toward the end of the war, numbered among the prominent prisoners taken from one camp to another but freed shortly before he was to be executed. From 1946 to 1961 headed the United States Army’s court-martial research staff. In his book Hitler als Feldherr (translated as Hitler as War Lord), published in 1949, he criticized the Führer’s strategy and his leadership qualities.
Hammerstein-Equord, Baron Kurt von (1878-1943)
Career officer of the old school. Became chief of army command in 1930. In late January 1933 went to Hindenburg to express the command’s doubts about Hitler’s fitness to become chancellor. Resigned in the fall of 1933. For a short time in 1939 commanded an army division in the West. Was soon relieved of his command because of his negative attitude toward National Socialism. Died of cancer in 1943.
Hassell, Ulrich von (1881-1944)
Lawyer and diplomat who held a number of important posts abroad. Served as German ambassador in Rome from 1932 until recalled in 1938. Later active in private business. From the outset strongly criticized Hitler’s foreign policy as leading inevitably to war. After hostilities broke out, used his international contacts to arrange contacts with representatives of Great Britain and the United States. Hoped that a successful coup would soon lead to the conclusion of a peace treaty with the Western Allies. Worked with Goerdeler, Beck, and Popitz on plans for Germany after the coup. Named as prospective foreign minister in all surviving cabinet lists drawn up by the resistance. Arrested on July 28, 1944. Condemned to death by the People’s Court on September 8 and executed in Plötzensee prison.
Heinz, Friedrich Wilhelm (1899-1968)
Officer in World War I who later joined the Erhardt Freikorps. Until late 1923 a leader in the SA. Expelled from the NSDAP. From 1925 to 1928 a member of the Stahlhelm’s national leadership. Finally a lieutenant colonel in the OKW Military Intelligence division. Was supposed to lead a task force attacking the Chancellery in September 1938. Wanted to prompt a scuffle during this action and shoot Hitler. In 1941 became commander of the Fourth Regiment of the Brandenburg Division. On July 20, 1944, was to lead a task force for the resistance. Though present on Bendlerstrasse, he managed to survive the war by hiding in Berlin. After the end of hostilities, became a municipal politician in the Soviet zone, then a controversial employee in the rearmament office in the West German government.
Helldorf, Count Wolf-Heinrich von (1896-1944)
Fought in World War I and was a member of the Freikorps. Became a National Socialist in 1925 and a member of the Prussian state assembly. In 1931 became the SA leader for Berlin-Brandenburg. Appointed Berlin prefect of police in 1935. After Kristallnacht upbraided his police officers for obeying orders to do nothing and stated that if he had been in Berlin he would have issued orders to shoot. Participated in the resistance. Arrested alter July 20, 1944, and executed in Plötzensee prison on August 15.
Hofacker, Cäsar von (1896-1944)
Lawyer. Began to work for the Vereinigte Stahlwerke (United Steel) company in Berlin in 1927, rising to considerable prominence there. Joined the Stahlhelm in 1931. As a lieutenant colonel in the reserve, was drafted into the Wehrmacht in August 1939. Became head of the iron and steel section of the military administrative staff in Paris, and later personal aide to the military commander in France. Acted as messenger between Stülpnagel and Stauffenberg. Attempted to win Rommel over to the conspiracy and later revealed his name under torture, sealing Rommel’s fate. Arrested on July 26, 1944, and condemned to death by the People’s Court on August 30. Executed in Plötzensee prison on December 20, 1944.
Jessen, Jens Peter (1895-1944)
Professor of political science at Göttingen, Kiel, and Marburg and lived in Berlin starting in 1936. Supported the Nazis before 1933 because he believed that they were the only force that could prevent an imminent Bolshevik takeover in Europe. He said, however, that once the Nazis assumed power he was likely to go into opposition. Was outraged at the abuses and corruption of the new regime. During the war was a captain in the reserves in the office of the quartermaster general of the army. Helped the July 20 conspirators travel. With Popitz and Planck, developed plans for a new constitution that conflicted with th
ose of Goerdeler. Arrested in August 1944. Condemned to death by the People’s Court on November 30 for “failure to report treasonous activities” and executed the same day in Plötzensee prison.
Kaiser, Jakob (1888-1961)
Bookbinder. Served from 1924 to 1933 on the executive of the Christian Trade Unions. Became a Center Party deputy in the Reichstag in 1933. With Wilhelm Leuschner attempted, also in 1933, to bring the various trade unions organized along ideological and philosophical lines together into a single union so as to forestall Nazi Gleichschaltung. Later, with Josef Wirmer, became one of Carl Goerdeler’s most influential advisers. His calm, open-minded, but determined temperament contributed substantially to relieving the tensions between various resistance groups. Went underground after July 20, 1944, and successfully eluded capture. In 1945 helped found the Christian Democratic Union in the Soviet occupation zone and Berlin. Was a West German minister from 1949 to 1957 and acting chairman of the CDU until 1958.
Keitel, Wilhelm (1882-1946)
Career officer. Blomberg’s successor as chief of the newly created OKW or high command of the armed forces, serving from 1938 to 1945. Appointed field marshal in 1940. Although originally opposed to an attack on the Soviet Union, he became Hitler’s devoted and closest military assistant. Called Hitler the “greatest general of all times,” earning himself the nickname Lakaitel (a play on his surname and Lakai, the German word for lackey). Sentenced to death at the Nuremberg trials and executed on October 16, 1946.
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