19.Berg, Age of Manufactures, 236, 239, 244, 248, 258; George Unwin, Samuel Oldknow and the Arkwrights (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1924), 30–32, 71, 124–25; Landes, Unbound Prometheus, 85; E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class ([1963] London: Pelican Books, 1968), 327, 335; Jones, “Technology, Transaction Costs, and the Transition to Factory Production,” 89–90.
20.Chaloner, People and Industries, 14–15; Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 98–99, 192–95, 224–25.
21.Small four-spindle, hand-powered spinning frames, built from Arkwright’s plans for a demonstration model, can be seen at the museums in Cromford and Belper. Hills, “Hargreaves, Arkwright and Crompton,” 121; Berg, Age of Manufactures, 236, 239, 242, 246; Menuge, “The Cotton Mills of the Derbyshire Derwent,” 56 (Arkwright quote).
22.John S. Cohen, “Managers and Machinery: An Analysis of the Rise of Factory Production,” Australian Economic Papers 20 (1981), 27–28; Berg, Age of Manufactures, 19, 24, 40–42.
23.Jenkins, “Introduction,” xv.
24.Berg, Age of Manufactures, 40–41, 231–32, 282–83; Pat Hudson, The Genesis of Industrial Capital: A Study of the West Riding Wool Textile Industry c. 1750–1850 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 137; Jones, “Technology, Transaction Costs, and the Transition to Factory Production,” 89–90; Roger Lloyd-Jones and A. A. Le Roux, “The Size of Firms in the Cotton Industry: Manchester 1815–1840,” The Economic History Review, new series, vol. 33, no. 1 (Feb. 1980), 77.
25.V. A. C. Gatrell, “Labour, Power, and the Size of Firms in Lancashire Cotton in the Second Quarter of the Nineteenth Century,” Economic History Review, new series, vol. 30, no. 1 (Feb. 1977), 96, 98, 112; Jenkins, “Introduction,” xv.
26.Berg, Age of Manufactures, 23–24; Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 208–11; Robert Gray, The Factory Question and Industrial England, 1830–1860 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 3–4.
27.Charles Babbage, On the Economy of Machinery and Manufacturers, 4th ed. (London: Charles Knight, 1835), 211–23.
28.Gatrell, “Labour, Power, and the Size of Firms,” 96–97, 108; Alfred Marshall, Principles of Economics (1890; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1920), 8th ed., IV.XI.7, http://www.econlib.org/library/Marshall/marP25.html#Bk.IV,Ch.XI.
29.Baines, History of the Cotton Manufacture, 184–85.
30.Landes, Unbound Prometheus, 41; Jones, “Technology, Transaction Costs, and the Transition to Factory Production,” 71–74; Jenkins, “Introduction,” xiii; Berg, Age of Manufactures, 23–24, 190, 246; Hudson, Genesis of Industrial Capital, 70–71. Marx discussed the issue of economies of scale and the rise of the factory system at great length in Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, vol. 1 ([1867] New York: International Publishers, 1967), chap. 13 and 14 (“Cooperation” and “Division of Labour and Manufacture”).
31.Jenkins, “Introduction,” x–xii; Berg, Age of Manufactures, 24; Hudson, Genesis of Industrial Capital, 81, 260; Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 299, 302.
32.Gatrell, “Labour, Power, and the Size of Firms,” 96–97, 107.
33.On British forms of wealth, see Thomas Piketty, Capital in the Twenty-First Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2014), 113–20, 129–31. Willersley Castle now is a Christian Guild hotel. Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 91, 94–98, 102, 169, 246; R. S. Fitton, The Arkwrights: Spinners of Fortune ([1989] Matlock, Eng.: Derwent Valley Mills Educational Trust, 2012), 224–96; Frances Trollope, The Life and Adventures of Michael Armstrong the Factory Boy ([1840] London: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1968), quote on 76.
34.Local church towers, however, did rival the mills in height. Mark Girouard, Cities & People: A Social and Architectural History (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985), 211–18; Thomas A. Markus, Buildings and Power: Freedom and Control in the Origin of Modern Building Types (London: Routledge, 1993), 263.
35.Fitton, The Arkwrights, 30, 50, 81.
36.Fitton, The Arkwrights, 30, 81; Thomas A. Markus, “Factories, to 1850,” The Oxford Companion to Architecture, vol. 1, ed. Patrick Goode (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 304–05; Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 200–207, 211–12; Malcolm Dick, “Charles Bage, the Flax Industry and Shrewsbury’s Iron-Framed Mills,” accessed Mar. 29, 2017, http://www.revolutionaryplayers.org.uk/charles-bage-the-flax-industry-and-shrewsburys-iron-framed-mills/; Markus, Buildings and Power, 266–67, 270–71, 281–82; Menuge, “The Cotton Mills of the Derbyshire Derwent,” 52–56.
37.A. J. Taylor, “Concentration and Specialization in the Lancashire Cotton Industry, 1825–1850,” Economic History Review, 2nd series, I (1949), 119–20; Markus, Buildings and Power, 275. Not all power looms were situated in sheds; some manufacturers built multistory weaving mills. See Colum Giles, “Housing the Loom, 1790–1850: A Study of Industrial Building and Mechanization in a Transitional Period,” Industrial Archeology Review XVI (1) (Autumn 1993), 30–33. On the spread of the sawtooth roof, first called the “weave shed roof,” to the United States, see Betsy Hunter Bradley, The Works: The Industrial Architecture of the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 192–93.
38.The first Cromford mills, though near the Derwent, were powered by a sough draining a lead mine and a brook, not the river itself. Fitton, The Arkwrights, 28–29.
39.Steam power was first used in a cotton mill in 1789, but water remained the most common power source for several decades. An 1870 industrial census found that cotton mills used more power from steam engines than any other industry. Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 103; Unwin, Samuel Oldknow, 119; Markus, Buildings and Power, 265–66; Parthasarathi, Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not, 155; Dickens, Hard Times, 22, 69; W. Cooke Taylor, Notes of a Tour in the Manufacturing Districts of Lancashire, 2nd ed. (London: Duncan and Malcolm, 1842), 1–2.
40.In the first report of the Factory Commission, Edwin Chadwick described an elevator as “an ascending and descending room, moved by steam.” Ure, The Philosophy of Manufactures, 32–33, 44–54 (“upright tunnels” on 45); Markus, Buildings and Power, 275, 280–81; Gray, The Factory Question, 92–93.
41.The Round Mill, built between 1803 and 1813, remained standing until 1959, when in the course of its demolition four workers were killed. Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 221; Markus, Buildings and Power, 125; Humphrey Jennings, Pandemonium, 1660–1886: The Coming of the Machine as Seen by Contemporary Observers, ed. Mary-Lou Jennings and Charles Madge (New York: Free Press, 1985), 98; Belper Derbyshire, Historical & Genealogical Records, “Belper & the Strutts: The Mills,” July 20, 2011, http://www.belper-research.com/strutts_mills/mills.html.
42.The housing Arkwright built in Cromford is still occupied. The row houses had lofts for weavers, who bought yarn from Arkwright and whose wives and children worked in his mill. Fitton, The Arkwrights, 29, 187; Arkwright Society presentation at Cromford Mills, May 15, 2015; Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 97, 102–04, 246; Chris Aspin, The First Industrial Society; Lancashire, 1750–1850 (Preston, UK: Carnegie Publishing, 1995), 184; Unwin, Samuel Oldknow and the Arkwrights, 95.
43.Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 246, 252; Unwin, Samuel Oldknow and the Arkwrights, 191; Fredrich Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England, trans. W. O. Henderson and W. H. Chaloner (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1958), 205.
44.Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 240–44; Unwin, Samuel Oldknow and the Arkwrights, 178.
45.Ure, The Philosophy of Manufactures, 150, 283–84, 312; Fitton, The Arkwrights, 146, 151; John Brown, A Memoir of Robert Blincoe, An Orphan Boy (1832), reprinted in James R. Simmons, Jr., ed., Factory Lives: Four Nineteenth-Century Working-Class Autobiographies (Peterborough, ON: Broadview Editions, 2007), 169; Cohen, “Managers and Machinery,” 25; Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England, 174, 1
99; Marx, Capital, vol. 1, 422. The classic study of the change from task-oriented to time-oriented work is E. P. Thompson, “Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism,” Past and Present 38 (Dec. 1967), pp. 56–97.
46.Landes, Unbound Prometheus, 43; Ellen Johnston, Autobiography (1869), reprinted in Simmons, Jr., ed., Factory Lives, 308; Aspin, First Industrial Society, 92; “knocker, n.” OED Online. September 2014. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/104097; “knock, v.” OED Online. September 2014. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/104090.
47.Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 97; Gray, The Factory Question, 136; Giorgio Riello and Patrick K. O’Brien, “The Future Is Another Country: Offshore Views of the British Industrial Revolution,” Journal of Historical Sociology 22 (1) (March 2009), 4–5.
48.Taylor, Notes of a Tour, 4.
49.Robert Southey, Journal of a Tour in Scotland in 1819, quoted in Jennings, Pandemonium, 156; Steven Marcus, Engels, Manchester, and the Working Class (New York: Random House, 1974), 34–40, 60–61; Riello and O’Brien, “The Future Is Another Country,” 6; Benjamin Disraeli, Sybil, or the Two Nations (London: Henry Colburn, 1845), 195; Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (1852; New York: International Publishers, 1963), 15.
50.Trollope, The Life and Adventures of Michael Armstrong, 236–37; Flora Tristan, Promenades dans Londres (Paris, 1840), quoted in Riello and O’Brien, “The Future Is Another Country,” 5.
51.Dickens, Hard Times, 69; Aspin, First Industrial Society, 4, 239–41.
52.It was a measure of how quickly the system was spreading that Taylor used the metaphor of machinery to describe society, a usage unusual before the eighteenth century. Gray, The Factory Question, 23–24; Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 209; Taylor, Notes of a Tour, 4–5; “machinery, n.” OED Online. September 2016. Oxford University Press, http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/111856.
53.Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 341; Ure, The Philosophy of Manufactures, 20–22, 474.
54.Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 226; Katrina Honeyman, “The Poor Law, the Parish Apprentice, and the Textile Industries in the North of England, 1780–1830,” Northern History 44 (2) (Sept. 2007), 127.
55.Brown, Memoir of Robert Blincoe, 115–18, 132, 173; William Dodd, A Narrative of the Experience and Sufferings of William Dodd, A Factory Cripple, Written by Himself (1841), reprinted in Simmons, Jr., ed., Factory Lives, 191, 193–95; Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 98–99, 103, 226; Fitton, The Arkwrights, 152, 160–61; Honeyman, “The Poor Law,” 123–25; Ure, The Philosophy of Manufactures, 171, 179–80, 299, 301; Jennings, Pandemonium, 214–15.
56.Some mills withheld part of the wages of workers on contract until the end of each quarter as further insurance against their departure. Fitton and Wadsworth, The Strutts and the Arkwrights, 104–06, 226, 233; Aspin, First Industrial Society, 53, 104.
57.Parthasarathi, Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not, 3–4, 53–54. See, for example, Thomas E. Woods, Jr., “A Myth Shattered: Mises, Hayek, and the Industrial Revolution,” Nov. 1, 2001, Foundation for Economic Education, https://fee.org/articles/a-myth-shattered-mises-hayek-and-the-industrial-revolution/; “Wake Up America,” Freedom: A History of US (PBS), accessed Dec. 8, 2016, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/historyofus/web04/.
58.Livesey quoted in Aspin, First Industrial Society, 86. See also, Brown, Memoir of Robert Blincoe, 91, 109, 138–39.
59.Trollope, The Life and Adventures of Michael Armstrong, quote on 186.
60.The equation of British factory workers with West Indian slaves was used not only by critics of the factory system but also by defenders of slavery, who argued that slaves were actually better off than mill workers. Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 220; Engels, Condition of the Working Class in England, 202, 204, 207–08; Disraeli, Sybil, 198; Catherine Gallagher, The Industrial Reformation of English Fiction: Social Discourse and Narrative Form, 1832–1867 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), 1–2.
61.Southey, Journal of a Tour in Scotland in 1819, quoted in Jennings, Pandemonium, 157–58; Robert Southey, Espiella’s Letters, quoted in Aspin, First Industrial Society, 53.
62.Gallagher, Industrial Reformation of English Fiction, 6–21 (quotes on 7 and 10).
63.Jennings, Pandemonium, 230; Taylor, Notes of a Tour, 1–2, 30.
64.Marcus, Engels, Manchester, and the Working Class, 45–46.
65.Jennings, Pandemonium, 231.
66.Johnson, River of Dark Dreams, 154–57, 180–83; Paul L. Younger, “Environmental Impacts of Coal Mining and Associated Wastes: A Geochemical Perspective,” Geological Society, London, Special Publications 236 (2004), 169–209.
67.William Blake, Collected Poems, ed. W. B. Yeats ([1905] London: Routledge, 2002), 211–12. Blake’s original manuscript, with the punctuation used here, can be seen at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/And_did_those_feet_in_ancient_time#mediaviewer/File:Milton_preface.jpg (accessed Dec. 6, 2016). Steven E. Jones, Against Technology: From the Luddites to Neo-Luddism (New York: Routledge, 2006), 81–96.
68.By 1881, the Lancashire population had doubled again, to 630,323. GB Historical GIS / University of Portsmouth, Lancashire through time | Population Statistics | Total Population, A Vision of Britain through Time (accessed Oct. 5, 2016), http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/unit/10097848/cube/TOT_POP. Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England, 16; Tristram Hunt, Marx’s General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2009), 78–79.
69.Landes, Unbound Prometheus, 116–17.
70.Taylor, Notes of a Tour, 6–7. For a different view, stressing the infection of both mill owners and workers by greed, see Robert Owen, Observations on the Effect of the Manufacturing System, 2nd ed. (London: Longman, Hart, Rees, and Orml, 1817), 5–9.
71.Engels wrote this not long after leaving his first stint at his family’s cotton mill in Manchester, a job he himself abhorred and was to return to for another two decades. Engels, Condition of the Working Class in England, 9–12, 153, 174, 199–202.
72.The Condition of the Working Class in England was an enormously influential book, both in the development of Marxism and in perceptions of Manchester and the Industrial Revolution. However, it had no immediate impact in the English-speaking world, since it did not appear in English until 1886, more than forty years after its publication in German, when an American edition came out. It was not published in England until 1892. Engels, Condition of the Working Class in England, 134–38; Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 209; Hunt, Marx’s General, 81, 100, 111–12, 312.
73.For the history of debate over factory legislation, see Gray, The Factory Question.
74.Marx, Capital, vol. 1, 418; Ure, The Philosophy of Manufactures, 17–18, 171, 179–80, 290, 299–301.
75.Taylor, Notes of a Tour, 3–4, 46, 237–38, 330.
76.Thomas Carlyle, Chartism, quoted in Jennings, Pandemonium, 35. Marx and Engels shared the belief that the rise of the factory system represented progress for mankind, in their eyes laying the basis for a new, more democratic, egalitarian, and productive social system. See, for example, Hunt, Marx’s General, 323–24.
77.Gray, The Factory Question, 100–101, 103–04; Ure, The Philosophy of Manufactures, 295.
78.Taylor, Notes of a Tour, 80–82, 223–24; Ure, The Philosophy of Manufactures, 334–38; Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England, 27, 156, 278.
79.Gray, The Factory Question; Valenze, The First Industrial Woman, 5.
80.B. L. Hutchins and A. Harrison, A History of Factory Legislation (London: P.S. King & Son, 1911).
81.Gray, The Factory Question, 23–24, 59–60, 72, 88 (quote from Factory Commission First Report), 130; Michael Merrill, “How Capitalism Got Its Name,” Dissent (Fall 2014), 87–92.
82.Engels, The Condition of the Working Class in England, 195.
83.Marx devoted Chapter X of t
he first volume of Capital to “The Working-Day,” capital’s “vampire thirst for the living blood of labour,” including a detailed discussion of the Factory Acts. Marx, Capital, vol. 1, 231–302 (“struggle” on 235; “vampire” on 256). Engels analyzed the Factory Acts in The Condition of the Working Class in England, 191–99.
84.Marx, Capital, vol. 1, 219; Hunt, Marx’s General, 1, 7, 179, 198, 234. As Hunt repeatedly points out, Engels’ years as a cotton mill manager supplied Marx not only with detailed information about how the business worked but with the financial support he needed to write Capital.
85.Janice Carlisle, “Introduction,” in Simmons, Jr., ed., Factory Lives, 27–28. See also David Vincent, Bread, Knowledge, and Freedom: A Study of Nineteenth-Century Working-Class Autobiography (London: Europa Publications, 1981), and Kevin Binfield, ed., Writings of the Luddites (Baltimore, MD, and London: Johns Hopkins Press, 2004) for how limited the sources are for working-class views of the factory system.
86.In Against Technology, Steven E. Jones traces the changing understanding of Luddism in British and American culture up through the twentieth century.
87.Berg, Age of Manufactures, 262; E. J. Hobsbawm, “The Machine Breakers,” in Labouring Men: Studies in the History of Labour ([1964] Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1967), 7–26; Fitton, The Arkwrights, 51, 53–55.
88.There is an extensive literature of Luddism. Particularly useful were Hobsbawm, “The Machine Breakers”; Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, chap. 14 (“An Army of Redressers”); and Kevin Binfield, ed., Writings of the Luddites (quoted letter on 74).
89.Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 570–91, 608–18.
90.Maxine Berg, The Age of Manufactures, 42, 259; Aspin, First Industrial Society, 67; Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 211, 297–346, 616–21; Marx, Capital, vol. I, 431–32.
91.Jones, Against Technology, 9, 47; Hobsbawm, “The Machine Breakers,” 9–16.
92.Thompson, however, questioned Engels’s depiction of cotton workers making up the nucleus of the emerging labor movement. Aspin, First Industrial Society, 55; Engels, Condition of the Working Class in England, 24, 137, 237; Thompson, Making of the English Working Class, 211, 213.
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