Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst

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Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst Page 83

by Robert M. Sapolsky


  65.E. Turkheimer, “Three Laws of Behavior Genetics and What They Mean,” Curr Dir Psych Sci 9 (2000): 160.

  Chapter 9: Centuries to Millennia Before

  1.L. Guiso et al., “Culture, Gender, and Math,” Sci 320 (2008): 1164.

  2.R. Fisman and E. Miguel, “Corruption, Norms, and Legal Enforcement: Evidence from Diplomatic Parking Tickets,” J Political Economics 115 (2007): 1020; M. Gelfand et al., “Differences Between Tight and Loose Cultures: A 33-Nation Study,” Sci 332 (2011): 1100; A. Alesina et al., “On the Origins of Gender Roles: Women and the Plough,” Quarterly J Economics 128 (2013): 469.

  3.For a good discussion of this, see A. Norenzayan, “Explaining Human Behavioral Diversity,” Sci 332 (2011): 1041.

  4.E. Tylor. Primitive Culture (1871; repr. New York: J. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1920).

  5.A. Whitten “Incipient Tradition in Wild Chimpanzees,” Nat 514 (2014): 178; R. O’Malley et al., “The Cultured Chimpanzee: Nonsense or Breakthrough?” J Curr Anthropology 53 (2012): 650; J. Mercador et al., “4,300-Year-Old Chimpanzee Sites and the Origins of Percussive Stone Technology,” PNAS 104 (2007): 3043; E. van Leeuwen et al., “A Group-Specific Arbitrary Tradition in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes),” Animal Cog 17 (2014): 1421.

  6.J. Mann et al., “Why Do Dolphins Carry Sponges?” PLoS ONE 3 (2008): e3868; M. Krutzen et al., “Cultural Transmission of Tool Use in Bottlenose Dolphins,” PNAS 102 (2005): 8939; M. Möglich and G. Alpert, “Stone Dropping by Conomyrma bicolor (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): A New Technique of Interference Competition,” Behav Ecology and Sociobiology 2 (1979): 105.

  7.M. Pagel, “Adapted to Culture,” Nat 482 (2012): 297; C. Kluckhohn et al., Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1952); C. Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973).

  8.D. Brown, Human Universals (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991); D. Smail, On Deep History and the Brain (Oakland: University of California Press, 2008).

  9.U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, “Life Expectancy at Birth,” in The World Factbook, https://cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html; W. Lutz and S. Scherbov, Global Age-Specific Literacy Projections Model (GALP): Rationale, Methodology and Software (Montreal: UNESCO Institute for Statistics Adult Education and Literacy Statistics Programme, 2006), www.uis.unesco.org/Library/Documents/GALP2006_en.pdf; U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, “Infant Mortality Rate,” in The World Factbook, https://cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2091rank.html; International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, October 2015.

  10.Homicide: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, Global Study on Homicide 2013 (April 2014); K. Devries, “The Global Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women,” Sci 340 (2013): 1527.

  Rape data: NationMaster, “Rape Rate: Countries Compared,” www.nationmaster.com/country-info/stats/Crime/Rape-rate; L. Melhado, “Rates of Sexual Violence are High in Democratic Republic of the Congo,” Int Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 36 (2010): 210; K. Johnson et al., “Association of Sexual Violence and Human Rights Violations with Physical and Mental Health in Territories of the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo,” JAMA 304 (2010): 553. Bullying data: F. Elgar et al., “Income Inequality and School Bullying: Multilevel Study of Adolescents in 37 Countries,” J Adolescent Health 45 (2009): 351.

  11.B. Snyder, “The Ten Best Countries for Women,” Fortune, October 27, 2014, http://fortune.com/2014/10/27/best-countries-for-women/. The Global Gender Gap Report was first published in 2006 by the World Economic Forum. Inter-Parliamentary Union, “Women in National Parliaments,” IPU.org, August 1, 2016, www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm; U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, “Maternal Mortality Rate,” in The World Factbook, https://cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2223rank.html.

  12.Gallup Poll International, “Do You Feel Loved?” February 2013; J. Henrich et al., “The Weirdest People in the World? BBS 33 (2010): 61; M. Morris et al. “Culture, Norms and Obligations: Cross-National Differences in Patterns of Interpersonal Norms and Felt Olibgations Toward Coworkers,” The Practice of Social Influence in Multiple Cultures 84107 (2001).

  13.H. Markus and S. Kitayama, “Culture and Self: Implications for Cognition, Emotion, and Motivation,” Psych Rev 98 (1991): 224; S. Kitayama and A. Uskul, “Culture, Mind, and the Brain: Current Evidence and Future Directions,” Ann Rev of Psych 62 (2011): 419; J. Sui and S. Han, “Self-Construal Priming Modulates Neural Substrates of Self-Awareness,” Psych Sci 18 (2007): 861; B. Park et al., “Neural Evidence for Cultural Differences in the Valuation of Positive Facial Expressions,” SCAN 11 (2016): 243.

  14.H. Katchadourian, Guilt: The Bite of Conscience (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford General Books, 2011); J. Jacquet, Is Shame Necessary? New Uses for an Old Tool (New York: Pantheon, 2015); B. Cheon et al., “Cultural Influences on Neural Basis of Intergroup Empathy,” Neuroimage 57 (2011): 642; A. Cuddy et al., “Stereotype Content Model Across Cultures: Towards Universal Similarities and Some Differences,” Brit J Soc Psych 48 (2009): 1.

  15.R. Nisbett, The Geography of Thought: How Asians and Westerners Think Differently . . . And Why (New York: Free Press, 2003).

  16.T. Hedden et al., “Cultural Influences on Neural Substrates of Attentional Control,” Psych Sci 19 (2008): 12; S. Han and G. Northoff, “Culture-Sensitive Neural Substrates of Human Cognition: A Transcultural Neuroimaging Approach,” Nat Rev Nsci 9 (2008): 646; T. Masuda and R. E. Nisbett, “Attending Holistically vs. Analytically: Comparing the Context Sensitivity of Japanese and Americans,” JPSP 81 (2001): 922.

  17.J. Chiao, “Cultural Neuroscience: A Once and Future Discipline,” Prog Brain Res 178 (2009): 287.

  18.Nisbett, The Geography of Thought; Y. Ogihara et al., “Are Common Names Becoming Less Common? The Rise in Uniqueness and Individualism in Japan,” Front Psych 6 (2015): 1490.

  19.A. Mesoudi et al., “How Do People Become W.E.I.R.D.? Migration Reveals the Cultural Transmission Mechanisms Underlying Variation in Psychological Processes,” PLoS ONE 11 (2016): e0147162.

  20.A. Terrazas and J. Batalova, Frequently Requested Statistics on Immigrants in the United States (Migration Policy Institute, 2009); J. DeParle, “Global Migration: A World Ever More on the Move,” New York Times, June 25, 2010; Pew Research Center, “Second-Generation Americans: A Portrait of the Adult Children of Immigrants,” February 7, 2013, www.pewsocialtrends.org/2013/02/07/second-generation-americans/.

  21.J. Lansing, “Balinese ‘Water temples’ and the Management of Irrigation,” Am Anthropology 89 (1987): 326.

  22.T. Talhelm et al., “Large-Scale Psychological Differences Within China Explained by Rice Versus Wheat Agriculture,” Sci 344 (2014): 603.

  23.A. Uskul et al., “Ecocultural Basis of Cognition: Farmers and Fishermen Are More Holistic than Herders,” PNAS 105 (2008): 8552.

  24.Z. Dershowitz, “Jewish Subcultural Patterns and Psychological Differentiation,” Int J Psych 6 (1971): 223.

  25.H. Harpending and G. Cochran, “In Our Genes,” PNAS 99 (2002): 10; F. Chang et al., “The World-wide Distribution of Allele Frequencies at the Human Dopamine D4 Receptor Locus,” Hum Genetics 98 (1996): 891; K. Kidd et al., “An Historical Perspective on ‘The World-wide Distribution of Allele Frequencies at the Human Dopamine D4 Receptor Locus,’” Hum Genetics 133 (2014): 431; C. Chen et al., “Population Migration and the Variation of Dopamine D4 Receptor (DRD4) Allele Frequencies Around the Globe,” EHB 20 (1999): 309.

  26.C. Ember and M. Ember, “Warfare, Aggression, and Resource Problems: Cross-Cultural Codes,” Behav Sci Res 26 (1992): 169; R. Textor, “Cross Cultural Summary: Human Relations Area Files” (1967); H. People and F. Marlowe, “Subsistence and the Evolution of Religion,” Hum Nat 23 (2012): 253.

  27.R. McMahon, Homicide in Pre-famine and Famine Ire
land (Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press, 2013).

  28.R. Nisbett and D. Cohen, Culture of Honor: The Psychology of Violence in the South (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996).

  29.W. Borneman, Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America (New York: Random House, 2008); B. Wyatt-Brown, Southern Honor: Ethics and Behavior in the Old South (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982).

  30.F. Stewart, Honor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994).

  31.D. Fischer, Albion’s Seed (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989).

  32.P. Chesler, “Are Honor Killings Simply Domestic Violence?” Middle East Quarterly, Spring 2009, pp. 61–69, www.meforum.org/2067/are-honor-killings-simply-domestic-violence.

  33.M. Borgerhoff Mulder et al., “Intergenerational Wealth Transmission and the Dynamics of Inequality in Small-Scale Societies,” Sci 326 (2009): 682.

  34.P. Turchin, War and Peace and War: The Rise and Fall of Empires (NY: Penguin Press, 2006); D. Rogers et al., “The Spread of Inequality,” PLoS ONE 6 (2011): e24683.

  35.R. Wilkinson, Mind the Gap: Hierarchies, Health and Human Evolution (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2000).

  36.F. Elgar et al., “Income Inequality, Trust and Homicide in 33 Countries,” Eur J Public Health 21, 241; F. Elgar et al., “Income Inequality and School Bullying: Multilevel Study of Adolescents in 37 Countries,” J Adolescent Health 45 (2009): 351; B. Herrmann et al., “Antisocial Punishment Across Societies,” Sci 319 (2008): 1362.

  37.F. Durante et al., “Nations’ Income Inequality Predicts Ambivalence in Stereotype Content: How Societies Mind the Gap,” Brit J Soc Psych 52 (2012): 726.

  38.N. Adler et al., “Relationship of Subjective and Objective Social Status with Psychological and Physiological Functioning: Preliminary Data in Healthy White Women,” Health Psych 19 (2000): 586; N. Adler and J. Ostrove, “SES and Health: What We Know and What We Don’t,” ANYAS 896 (1999): 3; I. Kawachi et al., “Crime: Social Disorganization and Relative Deprivation,” Soc Sci and Med 48 (1999): 719; I. Kawachi and B. Kennedy, The Health of Nations: Why Inequality Is Harmful to Your Health (New York: New Press, 2002); J. Lynch et al., “Income Inequality, the Psychosocial Environment, and Health: Comparisons of Wealthy Nations,” Lancet 358 (2001): 194; G. A. Kaplan et al., “Inequality in Income and Mortality in the United States: Analysis of Mortality and Potential Pathways,” Brit Med J 312 (1996): 999; J. R. Dunn et al., “Income Distribution, Public Services Expenditures, and All Cause Mortality in US States,” J Epidemiology and Community Health 59 (2005): 768; C. R. Ronzio et al., “The Politics of Preventable Deaths: Local Spending, Income Inequality, and Premature Mortality in US Cities,” J Epidemiology and Community Health 58 (2004): 175.

  39.R. Evans et al., Why Are Some People Healthy and Others Not? The Determinants of Health of Populations (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1994).

  40.D. Chon, “The Impact of Population Heterogeneity and Income Inequality on Homicide Rates: A Cross-National Assessment,” Int J Offender Therapy and Comp Criminology 56 (2012): 730; F. J. Elgar and N. Aitken, “Income Inequality, Trust and Homicide in 33 Countries,” Eur J Public Health 21 (2010): 241; C. Hsieh and M. Pugh, “Poverty, Income Inequality, and Violent Crime: A Meta-analysis of Recent Aggregate Data Studies,” Criminal Justice Rev 18 (1993): 182; M. Daly et al., “Income Inequality and Homicide Rates in Canada and the United States,” Canadian J Criminology 32 (2001): 219.

  41.K. A. DeCellesa and M. I. Norton, “Physical and Situational Inequality on Airplanes Predicts Air Rage,” PNAS 113 (2016): 5588.

  42.M. Balter, “Why Settle Down? The Mystery of Communities,” Sci 282 (1998): 1442; P. Richerson, “Group Size Determines Cultural Complexity,” Nat 503 (2013): 351; M. Derex et al., “Experimental Evidence for the Influence of Group Size on Cultural Complexity,” Nat 503 (2013): 389; A. Gibbons, “How We Tamed Ourselves—and Became Modern,” Sci 346 (2014): 405.

  43.F. Lederbogen et al., “City Living and Urban Upbringing Affect Neural Social Stress Processing in Humans,” Nat 474 (2011): 498; D. P. Kennedy and R. Adolphs, “Stress and the City,” Nat 474 (2011): 452; A. Abbott, “City Living Marks the Brain,” Nat 474 (2011): 429.

  44.J. Henrich et al., “Markets, Religion, Community Size, and the Evolution of Fairness and Punishment,” Sci 327 (2010): 1480; Footnote: B. Maheer, “Good Gaming,” Nat 531 (2016): 568.

  45.A. Norenzayan, Big Gods: How Religions Transformed Cooperation and Conflict (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015).

  46.L. R. Florizno et al., “Differences Between Tight and Loose Cultures: A 33-Nation Study,” Sci 332 (2011): 1100.

  47.J. B. Calhoun, “Population Density and Social Pathology,” Sci Am 306 (1962): 139; E. Ramsden, “From Rodent Utopia to Urban Hell: Population, Pathology, and the Crowded Rats of NIMH,” Isis 102 (2011): 659; J. L. Freedman et al., “Environmental Determinants of Behavioral Contagion,” Basic and Applied Soc Psych 1 (1980): 155; O. Galle et al., “Population Density and Pathology: What Are the Relations for Man?” Sci 176 (1972): 23.

  48.A. Parkes, “The Future of Fertility Control,” in J. Meade, ed., Biological Aspects of Social Problems (NY: Springer, 1965).

  49.M. Lim et al., “Global Pattern Formation and Ethnic/Cultural Violence,” Sci 317 (2007): 1540; A. Rutherford et al., “Good Fences: The Importance of Setting Boundaries for Peaceful Coexistence,” PLoS ONE 9 (2014): e95660.

  50.Florizno et al., “Differences Between Tight and Loose.”

  51.The following papers examine the effects of normal weather fluctuations, extremes of weather, and global warming on a variety of social end points: J. Brashares et al., “Wildlife Decline and Social Conflict,” Sci 345 (2014): 376; S. M. Hsiang et al., “Civil Conflicts Are Associated with the Global Climate,” Nat 476 (2011): 438; A. Solow, “Climate for Conflict,” Nat 476 (2011): 406; S. Schiermeier, “Climate Cycles Drive Civil War,” Nat 476 (2011): 406; E. Miguel et al., “Economic Shocks and Civil Conflict: An Instrumental Variables Approach,” J Political Economy 112 (2004): 725; M. Burke et al., “Warming Increases Risk of Civil War in Africa,” PNAS 106 (2009): 20670; J. P. Sandholt and K. S. Gleditsch, “Rain, Growth, and Civil War: The Importance of Location,” Defence and Peace Economics 20 (2009): 359; H. Buhaug, “Climate Not to Blame for African Civil Wars,” PNAS 107 (2010): 16477; D. D. Zhang et al., “Global Climate Change, War and Population Decline in Recent Human History,” PNAS 104 (2007): 19214; R. S. J. Tol and S. Wagner, “Climate Change and Violent Conflict in Europe over the Last Millennium,” Climatic Change 99 (2009): 65; A. Solow, “A Call for Peace on Climate and Conflict,” Nat 497 (2013): 179; J. Bohannon, “Study Links Climate Change and Violence, Battle Ensues,” Sci 341 (2013): 444; S. M. Hsiang et al., “Quantifying the Influence of Climate on Human Conflict,” Sci 341 (2013): 1212.

  52.R. Sapolsky, “Endocrine and Behavioral Correlates of Drought in the Wild Baboon,” Am J Primat 11 (1986): 217.

  53.J. Bohannon, “Study Links Climate Change and Violence, Battle Ensues,” Sci 341 (2013): 444.

  54.E. Culotta, “On the Origins of Religion,” Sci 326 (2009): 784 (this is the source of the quote); C. A. Botero et al., “The Ecology of Religious Beliefs,” PNAS 111 (2014): 16784; A. Shariff and A. Norenzayan, “God Is Watching You: Priming God Concepts Increases Prosocial Behavior in an Anonymous Economic Game,” Psych Science 18 (2007): 803; R. Wright, The Evolution of God (Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 2009).

  55.L. Keeley, War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).

  56.S. Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Penguin, 2011).

  57.G. Milner, “Nineteenth-Century Arrow Wounds and Perceptions of Prehistoric Warfare,” Am Antiquity 70 (2005): 144.

  58.See this entire volume: D. Fry, War, Peace, and Human Nature: The Convergence of Evolutionary and Cultural V
iews (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015). In particular, see these chapters in it: R. Ferguson, “Pinker’s List: Exaggerating Prehistoric War Mortality,” p. 112; R. Sussman “Why the Legend of the Killer Ape Never Dies: The Enduring Power of Cultural Beliefs to Distort Our View of Human Nature,” p. 92; and R. Kelly, “From the Peaceful to the Warlike: Ethnographic and Archeological Insights into Hunter-Gatherer Warfare and Homicide,” p. 151.

  59.F. Wendorf, The Prehistory of Nubia (Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press, 1968).

  60.R. A. Marlar et al., “Biochemical Evidence of Cannibalism at a Prehistoric Puebloan Site in Southwestern Colorado,” Nat 407 (2000): 74; M. Balter, “Did Neandertals Dine In?” Sci 326 (2009): 1057.

  61.N. Chagnon, Yanomamo: The Fierce People (NY: Holt McDougal, 1984); N. A. Chagnon, “Life Histories, Blood Revenge, and Warfare in a Tribal Population,” Sci 239 (1988): 985.

  62.A. Lawler, “The Battle over Violence,” Sci 336 (2012): 829.

  63.G. Benjamin et al., “Violence: Finding Peace,” Sci 338 (2012): 327; S. Pinker, “Violence: Clarified,” Sci 338 (2012): 327.

  64.A. R. Ramos, “Reflecting on the Yanomami: Ethnographic Images and the Pursuit of the Exotic,” Cultural Anthropology 2 (1987): 284; R. Ferguson, Yanomami Warfare: A Political History, a School for Advanced Research Resident Scholar Book (1995); E. Eakin, “How Napoleon Chagnon Became Our Most Controversial Anthropologist,” New York Times Magazine, 2013, p. 13; D. Fry, Beyond War: The Human Potential for Peace (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009).

  65.L. Glowacki and R. Wrangham, “Warfare and Reproductive Success in a Tribal Population,” PNAS 112 (2015): 348. For related findings, see: J. Moore, “The Reproductive Success of Cheyenne War Chiefs: A Contrary Case to Chagnon’s Yanomamo,” Curr Anthropology 31 (1990): 322; S. Beckerman et al., “Life Histories, Blood Revenge and Reproductive Success Among the Waorani of Ecuador,” PNAS 106 (2009): 8134.

 

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