Trigger argues that Champlain and the Recollets “undermined relations between the French and Montagnais by their high handed ethnocentric treatment of native peoples,” and did so specifically in trying to persuade the Montagnais to “settle down and become farmers,” and even “to become French.” This was a misunderstanding of Champlain. He was moved by the sufferings of the Montagnais and their starvation in late winter and early spring. He urged that they add farming to hunting, as the Algonquin, Huron, and Iroquois did. He was not asking them to become French, but advised those in the southern end of their territory to provide for themselves much as other Indian nations did. This policy had some success.%
Champlain is accused by Trigger of imposing French ideas of justice on the Indians after several murders of Frenchmen by Montagnais. What actually happened was the opposite. Champlain worked very hard to frame processes of justice that both Indians and Europeans would accept as legitimate.%
Trigger writes that Champlain “failed completely to understand the consensual nature of native political arrangements. Because he viewed all power as being delegated from above, he did not comprehend that Indian leaders could not decide matters but had to secure individual consent from their followers” (Natives and Newcomers, 199). This statement is the reverse of what Champlain repeatedly observed—that Indian leaders had little control over their followers. He made that observation after his first meeting with the Montagnais in 1603, again with the Algonquin, and once more with the Huron, frequently commenting at length on the leaders’ lack of power and authority. When preparing his last campaign against the central Iroquois, Champlain visited almost every village in Huronia, persuading the local leaders and warriors to join him. Trigger misread the evidence as to how that happened and why. He also missed Champlain’s driving purpose.%
Trigger writes: “In general, Champlain appears to have been extremely ethnocentric and inflexible. Since neither of these characteristics would have been particularly helpful when it came to interacting with Indians, it is likely that Champlain’s early successes were the result more of the situation than of the man. It also appears that he pursued the Indian policies that he or his employers had formulated with less understanding of their ways, and less sympathy, than the majority of historians have imagined.”%
There is some truth in these statements. It is true that Champlain wrote that the Indians had neither faith nor law, and many ethnohistorians have convicted him of ethnocentrism on the basis of these passages. But it should be noted that Champlain was well aware of Indian spiritual beliefs and legal customs. He described them in detail. But he believed that Indians lived mainly by an idea of law as lex talionis, and justice as a process that punished one wrong by the commission of another. He believed that they had no idea of law as a system of universal rights and protections against wrong, and in that sense had no law.%
He also thought that Indian spiritual beliefs were not a universal religion such as Christianity. Champlain believed that nations could live in peace with one another with mutual respect and forbearance only on the basis of universal ethical and religious beliefs that recognized the humanity of all people. Secular social scientists reject this way of thinking as ethnocentric, and some ways it was so. But it transcended its ethnocentrism in its aspirations to universal justice, faith, truth, and law. In short, ethnocentric in some ways, yes, but Champlain’s attitudes were grounded in ideas of universal justice, faith, and peace. Trigger missed the heart of this man.
137. René Lévesque, Memoirs (Toronto, 1986), 65.
138. Armstrong, Champlain, xvi.
139. Pierre Berton, My Country (Toronto, 1976), 65.
140. Caroline Montel-Glénisson, Champlain au Canada; les aventures d’un gentilhomme explorateur (Quebec, 2004), with illustrations by Michel Glénisson.
141. Hundreds of essays, many of very high quality, appear in Raymonde Litalien and Denis Vaugeois, ed. Champlain; la Naissance de l’Amérique française (Quebec, 2004); Champlain and the Birth of French America (Montreal, 2004); Mickaël Augeron and Dominique Guillemet, Champlain, ou les portes du Nouveau Monde: Cinq siècles d’échanges entre le Centre-Ouest français et l’Amérique du Nord, XVle—XXe siècles (Ligugé, Éditions Geste, 2004); Annie Blondel-Loisel and Raymonde Litalien, in collaboration with Jean Paul Barbiche and Claude Briot, De la Seine au Saint Laurent avec Champlain (Paris, 2005); Pierre Icowicz and Raymonde Litalien, eds., Dieppe-Canada: cinq cents ans d’Histoire commune (Paris and Dieppe, 2004); Bertrand Guillet and Louise Pothier, eds., France/Nouvelle-France: naissance d’un peuple français en Amérique (Montreal and Paris, 2005); James Kelly and Barbara Clarke Smith, eds., Jamestown-Quebec-Santa Fe: Three North American Beginnings (Washington and New York, 2007).
A. CHAMPLAIN’S BIRTH DATE
1. Marcel Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France, Les Vaines Tentatives, 1524–1603 (Montreal and Paris, 1963) 1:255; A.-L. Leymarie, “Inédit sur le fondateur de Québec,” Nova Francia 1 (1925), 80–85.
2. Morris Bishop, Champlain: The Life of Fortitude (New York, 1948), 343.
3. Laverdière, Champlain, 1:x.
4. Ibid. 1:x—xii.
5. Bishop, Champlain: The Life of Fortitude, 344.
6. Narcisse-Eutrope Dionne, Champlain, Fondateur de Québec et Pére de la Nouvelle-France, 2 vols., (Quebec, 1891) 1:4; Marcel Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France (Montreal and Paris, 1963), 1:255; Samuel Eliot Morison, Samuel de Champlain, Father of New France (New York, 1972), 16.
7. Jean Liebel, “Où a vieilli Champlain,” Revue d’histoire de l’Amérique Française 32 (1978), 229–37.
8. Ibid. 233.
9. Ibid.
10. Raymonde Litalien and Denis Vaugeois, eds., Champlain: la naissance de l’Amérique française (Quebec, 2004); tr. as Champlain and the Birth of French America (Montreal, 2004), 37, 121.
11. The army records are reproduced in Robert Le Blant and René Baudry, Nouveaux documents sur Champlain et son époque (Ottawa, 1967) 1:17–19; for Crozon, see above, pp. 63–65.
12. The voyages of the Sieur de Champlain of Saintonge…. (Paris, 1913), preface; CWB, 1:209–10.
13. “Après avoir passé trente huict ans de mon âge à faire plusieurs voyages sur mer.” CWB 6:255.
14. CWB 4:363.
15. John A. Williamson, Antisubmarine Warrior in the Pacific (Tuscaloosa, Al., 2005), 127.
16. Bishop, Champlain: The Life of Fortitude, 344.
B. CHAMPLAIN’S VOYAGES: A CHRONOLOGY
1. Chronologies of Champlain’s voyages have been compiled by C.-H. Laverdière; by N.-E. Dionne in a list entitled “Affrètement de Navires, 1605–1615,” 1:288–95, and “1616–1625” 2:389–92; Samuel E. Morison, Champlain: The Founder of New France (New York, 1972), 231–33; Raymonde Litalien and Denis Vaugeois, eds., Champlain: The Birth of French America (Montreal, 2004), 364–71; Jean Glénisson, La France d’Amérique: Voyages de Samuel Champlain (Paris, 1994), 48–53. No two of these lists are the same. Morison’s list included four voyages that never happened and missed two that did. He erroneously reported that Champlain made twenty-nine Atlantic crossings from 1599 to 1635.%
This list returns to primary sources, mainly to Champlain’s own writings, and after 1632 to materials in Marcel Trudel’s Histoire de la Nouvelle-France, Lucien Campeau’s Monumenta Novae Franciae, and the Jesuit Relations. It also incorporates specialized studies by Trudel, Campeau, and students of Champlain’s West Indian Voyages.
C. CHAMPLAIN’S BRIEF DISCOURS: PROBLEMS OF ACCURACY AND AUTHENTICITY
1. For a discussion see Laura Giraudo, “Les manuscripts du Brief Discours,” in Raymonde Litalien et Denis Vaugeois, eds., Champlain: The Birth of French America (Quebec, 2004), 63–82; an earlier inquiry in the mid-nineteenth century that confirms this provenance appears in Francis Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World (1865, revised edition with corrections, 1885; rpt. Boston, 1901), 243.
2. These materials appear in Champlain, Narrative of a Voyage to the West Indies and Mexico
in the Years 1599–1602, trans. Alice Wilmere, ed. Norton Shaw (London: Hakluyt Society, 1859, 1880); Charles-Honoré Laverdière, ed., Oeuvres de Champlain, 2nd edition, 6 vols. in 4 (Quebec, 1870), 1, 10, 25, 26, 32, 35, 47, 48; H. P. Biggar, ed., The Works of Samuel de Champlain, 6 vols. and a portfolio of maps and drawings (CWB) (Toronto, 1922–36, reprinted 1971) 1: 5, 18, 46, 54, 60, 69, 77, 80.
3. See N.-E. Dionne, Samuel de Champlain: fondateur de Québec at père de la Nouvelle France, 2 vols. (Quebec, 1891); Gabriel Gravier, Vie de Samuel de Champlain: fondateur de la Nouvelle-France (Paris, 1900); L’Abbé H. R. Casgrain, Champlain:sa vie et son caractère (Paris 1900).
4. Parkman, Pioneers, 242–43.
5. Morris Bishop, Champlain: The Life of Fortitude (New York, 1948), 22.
6. Jean Bruchési, “Champlain a-t-il menti?” Cahiers des Dix 15 (1950), 39–53.
7. See Claude de Bonnault, “Encore le Brief Discours: Champlain a-t-il été à Blavet en 1598?” Bulletin des recherches historiques 60 (1954), 59–64; idem, “Les archives d’Espagne et le Canada: Rapport sur une mission dans les archives d’Espagne,” Rapport de l’Archiviste de la province de Québec 1951–52, 1952–53; also idem, “Champlain et les Espagnols,” essay in the René Baudry Collection, Library and Archives Canada.
8. Hubert Deschamps, Les voyages de Samuel Champlain, saintongeais, père du Canada (Paris, 1951), 5.
9. See Jacques Rousseau, “Samuel de Champlain, botaniste mexicain et antillais,” Cahiers des Dix 16 (1951), 39–61.
10. CWB 1:22; L. A. Vigneras, “Le Voyage de Samuel Champlain aux Indes occidentales,” RHAF 11 (1957), 177, 187, 189.
11. See Vigneras, “Le Voyage de Samuel Champlain,” 163–200.
12. See Morris Bishop, “Champlain’s Veracity: A Defence of the Brief Discours,” Queen’s Quarterly 66 (1959), 127–34.
13. See Samuel Eliot Morison, Samuel de Champlain, Father of New France (Boston, 1972), 277.
14. Compare Marcel Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France: Les Vaines Tentatives, 1524–1603 (Montreal and Paris, 1963) 1:257–58.
15. Jean Liebel, “On a vieilli Champlain,” RHAF 32 (1978), 229–37, 232.
16. Compare Codignola, “Samuel de Champlain et les mystères de son voyage au Indes occidentales, 1599–1601: l’état de la recherche et quelques routes à suivre,” in Cecilia Rizza, ed., “La découverte de nouveaux mondes: aventure et voyages imaginaires au XVIIe siècle,” in Actes du XXIIe colloque du centre méridional de rencontres sur le XVIIe siècle, Gênes 23–25 January, 1992 (Fasano, 1993), 56–58; also Luca Codignola, “Le prétendu voyage de Samuel de Champlain aux Indes occidentales, 1599–1601,” in Madeline Frédéric et Serge Jasumain eds., Actes du séminaire de Bruxelles: la relation de voyage: un document historique et littéraire (Brussels, 1999).
17. Joe C. W. Armstrong, Champlain (Toronto, 1987), 274–78, 32–34; CWB 1:79.
18. Armstrong, Champlain, 274–78.
19. Ibid., 32–34; cf. Champlain in CWB 1:79.
20. Laura Giraudo’s results are published as “Rapport de recherche: une mission en Espagne,” and “Les manuscrits du Brief Discours,” both in Raymonde Litalien et Denis Vaugeois, eds., Champlain: The Birth of French America (Quebec, 2004), 63–82, 93–97.
21. See François-Marc Gagnon, “Le Brief Discours est-il de Champlain?” in Litalien et Vaugeois, eds., Champlain, 83–92.
22. See “Champlain’s Voyage accounts, Interview with Jean Glénisson,” interview by Raymonde Italien, revised and authorized by Jean Glénisson, in Litalien and Vaugeois, eds., Champlain, 280.
23. CWB 1:1–2.
D. CHAMPLAIN’S PUBLISHED WRITINGS: A QUESTION OF AUTHORSHIP
1. Charles-Honoré Laverdière, ed., Oeuvres de Champlain, 2nd edition, 6 vols. in 4 (Quebec, 1870) 5: v—vi; Morris Bishop, Champlain: The Life of Fortitude (New York, 1948), 324; and Le Blant, who agreed with Laverdière.
2. H. P. Biggar, Early Trading Companies of New France, A Contribution to the History of Commerce and Discovery in North America (Toronto, 1901, 1937; rpt. Clifton, N.J., 1972), 279.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid. 276, 179.
E. CHAMPLAIN’S TRAITTÉ DE LA MARINE: AN ESSAY ON LEADERSHIP
1. H. P. Biggar, ed., The Works of Samuel de Champlain, 6 vols. and a portfolio of maps and drawings (CWB) (Toronto, 1922–36, reprinted 1971) 6: 253–346.
2. Morris Bishop, Champlain: The Life of Fortitude (New York, 1948), 324.
3. Joe C. W. Armstrong, Champlain (Toronto, 1987), 253.
4. Samuel Eliot Morison, Samuel de Champlain, Father of New France (New York, 1972), 236–67.
5. D. W. Waters, The Art of Navigation in England in Elizabethan and Early Stuart Times (New Haven, 1958), 625–28.
6. Ibid., 232n; CWB 6:322.
7. That is, west of the Zuider Zee.
8. John Smith, An Accidence, or The Path-way to Experience. Necessary for all Young Sea-men (London, 1626) and its sequel, A Sea Grammar, with the Plaine Exposition of Smith’s Accidence for Young Seamen, Enlarged (London, 1627), reprinted in Philip L. Barbour, ed., The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580–1631), 3 vols. (Chapel Hill, 1986) 3: 3–121. This editor of Smith’s work observes unkindly that his Accidence is “little more than an omnium gatherum of names for the appurtenances and people that make up a ship and her crew.” Barbour 3:7.
9. CWB 6:255–56.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid. 6:257–58.
12. Ibid. 6:267.
13. Ibid. 6:258, 262.
14. Ibid. 6:259–60.
15. Ibid. 6: 267, 282.
16. Ibid. 6:259, 262–63.
17. Ibid. 6:297.
18. Ibid. 6:312, 264, 268.
19. Ibid. 6:269–70.
20. Ibid. 6:270.
21. Ibid. 6:268.
22. Ibid. 6:261.
23. Ibid. 4:362.
24. Alain Rey et al., eds., Le Grand Robert de la langue française, 6 vols. (Paris 2001), s.v. “honnête” II, 1.
F. ANOTHER SELF-PORTRAIT?
1. Cf. Marcel Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France: La Seigneurie des Cent-Associés, 1627–1663 (Montreal, 1975) 3.1:35; idem, “La carte de Champlain en 1632; ses sources et son originalité,” Cartologica (1978), 51; François-Marc Gagnon, Premiers peintres de la Nouvelle-France, 2 vols. (Quebec, 1976) 2:25–26; Martin, “Samuel de Champlain à visage découvert,” in Litalien and Vaugeois, eds., Champlain: The Birth of French America (Montreal, 2004), 360–62.
2. They are to be found in Samuel de Champlain, “Descr[i]psion des costs p[or]ts, rades, Illes de la nouuele france faict selon son vray meridien Avec la declinaison de le[y]ment de plussiers endrois selon que le sieur de Castelfranc le demontre en son liure de la mecometrie de le[y]mant faict et observe par le Sr de Champlain, 1607,” Map Division, Library of Congress.
G. CHAMPLAIN’S SUPERIORS: VICEROYS AND GENERALS OF NEW FRANCE
1. Leading studies include Jean Liebel, Pierre Dugua, sieur de Mons, fondateur de Québec (Paris, 1999); Jean-Yves Grenon, Pierre Dugua de Mons, fondateur de l’Acadie (1604–05); Co-Fondateur de Québec (1608) (Annapolis Royal, 2000); Guy Binot, Pierre Dugua de Mons (Royan, 2004); William Inglis Morse, Pierre de Gua, Sieur de Monts (London, 1939).
2. See Henry Percival Biggar, ed., The Works of Samuel de Champlain, 6 vols. and a portfolio of maps and drawings (CWB), (Toronto, 1922–36, reprinted 1971) 2:243–44; 4:208–16; 5:143; Lucien Campeau, Monumenta Novae Franciae (Quebec, 1967) 1:665; Marcel Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France, vol. 2: Le Comptoir, 1604–1627 (Montreal, 1966), 186–88; Docteur Cabanès, Les Condé: grandeur et dégénérescence d’une famille princière, 2 vols. (Paris, n.d., [1932]).
3. For sources see CWB 2:239, 245; 3:15–20; 4:216–18, 339, 344–46; 367–70; Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France 2:18–89; 452; Lucien Campeau, Mercure François, 4:228; Cabanès, Les Condé; Robert Le Blant, “La famille Boullé, 1586–1639,” RHAF 17 (1963), 55–69.
4. See CWB 4:340–42, 344–47, 367; Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France 2
: 240–41, 452.
5. See CWB 4:367–70; Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France 2: 264–65, 297, 452; Campeau, Monumenta Novae Franciae 1:678, with a correction in 2:248.
6. See CWB 5:139–52; Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France 2:296–99.
7. Sources on Richelieu and New France include Campeau, Monumenta Novae Franciae 2:850–51 passim; Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France 2:306, 432–34; Pierre Castagnos, Richelieu face à la mer (Rennes, 1989), 72–76, 125–27; Michel Carmona, La France de Richelieu (Paris, 1984), 185–93; CWB 3:235–38, 5:288, 6:147, 153, 167–71, 214, 219–20.
H. TRADING COMPANIES AND MONOPOLIES IN NEW FRANCE DURING CHAMPLAIN’S ERA, 1588–1635
1. Sources: H. P. Biggar, The Early Trading Companies of New France (Toronto, 1901, 1937; rpt. Clifton, N.J., 1972) is still useful for the period from 1588 to 1632. Very helpful for the later period are two monographs by Lucien Campeau, Les finances publiques de la Nouvelle-France sous les Cent-Associés, 1632–1665 (Montreal, 1975) and Les Cent-Associés et le peuplement de la Nouvelle France (1633–1663) (Montreal, 1974). For the entire period, and especially for the subsidiary companies, the best work is Marcel Trudel, Histoire de la Nouvelle-France, III: La Seigneurie des Cent-Associés, 2 vols. (Montreal, 1979, 1983).
I. INDIAN NATIONS IN CHAMPLAIN’S WORLD, 1603–35
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