by Mehrdad Kia
Shortly before midnight came the call to prayer, at which time the late wanderers returned home to prepare for a morning meal. In the large urban centers such as Istanbul and Cairo, shortly after the arrival of midnight, the cannon sounded a warning to the faithful that it was time to eat their morning meal. In small towns and villages, drummers walked through narrow streets and alleys warning the faithful to eat their early morning meal before the sunrise. The morning meal was usually eaten an hour before the morning prayer. In homes of the rich and powerful, the servants brought water for ablution, spread the leather cloth (sofra, Arabic: sufrah) — well tanned and generally of a yellow color bordered with black — and placed a meal on it which at times included remnants of the evening’s meal. Then sounded the salam, or blessing on the prophet, an introduction to the call of morning prayer. Many took the last puff on their pipes. A second gun was fired as a sign of imsak, or the order to abstain from eating and drinking. Then the faithful waited for the call to prayer, which was followed by a ceremony called “purpose” or “intention” (niyet/niyat). For instance, the worshipper could say to himself, silently or audibly, that he intended to pray two bows of prayer to God. He then proceeded with his prayers and went to sleep immediately. Different schools of Islamic jurisprudence required different forms of niyet.
When the month of fasting fell in winter, the wealthy families of the Ottoman capital, particularly the women, spent much of their time in chatting and embroidery work until “about six o’clock in the evening when the cry of the muezzin from the minarets proclaimed that one of the out watchers had caught a glimpse of the moon.” Instantly, the entire household went into motion; the “preliminary arrangements” had been so “carefully made” that not a second was lost and as a servant “announced dinner,” the entire harem followed the matriarch of the family “to a smaller apartment,” which served as the dining room. In the center of the square-shaped and unfurnished dining room was “a carpet, on which stood a wooden frame, about two feet in height, supporting an immense round plated tray, with the edge slightly raised.” In the center of the tray “was placed a capacious white basin, filled with a kind of cold bread soup and around it were ranged a circle of small porcelain saucers, filled with sliced cheese, anchovies, caviars, and sweetmeats of every description; among these were scattered spoons of box-wood, and goblets of pink and white sherbet, whose rose-scented contents perfumed the apartment.” The outer section of the tray “was covered with fragments of unleavened bread, torn asunder, and portions of the Ramazan cake,” a dry paste “glazed with the whites of eggs, and stewed over with aniseeds.”
After spreading richly fringed napkins on their laps and munching on this starter tray, the household sat quietly as servants served them with “fish embedded in rice,” dishes of meat and poultry, which were eaten with fingers with each individual “fishing up, or breaking away” a piece of the meat and handing one to the guest as a courtesy. One European observer, who was invited to one of these sumptuous meals, counted “nineteen dishes of fish, flesh, fowl, pastry, and creams, succeeding each other in the most heterogeneous manner,” all culminating with “a pyramid of pilaf.” Once the meal had been finished, water, sherbet, and coffee were served. As the family and guests rose from the table, “a slave presented herself, holding a basin and strainer of wrought metal, while a second poured tepid water” over everyone’s hands “from an elegantly-formed vase of the same materials “; and a third handed “embroidered napkins of great beauty.” Returning from the dining room to “the principal apartment,” the family gathered to listen to a storyteller who was invited to relieve the tedium of the long evening with her narrations.
Some among high government officials celebrated the arrival of the holy month by opening the doors of their homes and showering their dependents and servants with kindness and generosity. In his Book of Travels, Evliya Çelebi wrote that at the beginning of Ramazan, his patron, Melek Ahmed Paşa, distributed various precious goods from his treasury such as expensive garments, vessels, weapons, armor, jeweled muskets, swords, sable furs, and coral prayer beads to his servants and ağas, in return for a complete Quran recital and their prayers and invocations. Every Monday and Friday evening during the month, the doors of his home were opened to the public, who were served fruit syrups and musky sweetmeats of pistachios and almonds, while they listened to recitations of prayers from the Quran.
The sultan and his officials used Ramazan as an occasion to sacrifice a variety of animals either at a mosque or at a public place such as an open street or the main gates of the city. The meat was distributed among ordinary people, particularly the poor and the needy. Numerous religious ceremonies and observances also took place throughout the holy month. On the fifteenth of Ramazan, the sultan and high government officials went to pay homage to the relics of the prophet Muhammad, which they held in great veneration. These included the prophet’s mantle, “a black woolen jacket, measuring 124 centimeters, with wide sleeves and cream-colored wool lining,” his flag and battle standard, the hair from his beard, a piece of his tooth, and his footprint set in a piece of stone. The ceremonial uncovering, display, and veneration of these relics followed the noon prayer. Though conducted privately, the ceremony was nonetheless an occasion of great religious significance.
Ramazan Bayrami
The end of Ramazan was marked with a three-day Islamic holiday called Ramazan Bayrami (Ramazan Festival) or Şeker Bayrami (Sugar Festival) also known in Arabic as Eid ul-Fitr or Eid us-Sagheer, Minor Festival. The month of fasting ended and the festivities began with the first appearance of the new moon heralding the month of Shawwal. At times, the bayram was delayed if the weather was cloudy and the new moon did not appear in the sky. If the sky remained cloudy and the moon was obscured, it was simply presumed that the new moon was present and the month of fasting had ended. In Istanbul, the end of Ramazan was officially proclaimed with discharging of cannons at the imperial palace. The lights and lamps on the minarets were extinguished, and drums and trumpets were played in public places and the homes of high government officials and court dignitaries.
Even before the arrival of the bayram, the sultan — as well as the rich and powerful who surrounded him — demonstrated their devotion, charity, and piety by distributing alms to the poor. Some families prepared a variety of dishes and sent them to their neighbors, as well as to the poor and the needy. In the courtyards of the main mosques, markets were set up to sell meat, fruits, vegetables, sweets, clothing, fabrics, candles, toys, and a host of other popular goods. On the first day of Shawwal, the tenth month in the Islamic calendar, came the Ramazan celebration.
At the palace, the entrance leading to the apartments of the chief eunuch, who commanded the royal pages, was adorned with rich carpets, cushions, and furniture. A few hours before daybreak, the grand vizier and other high officials and court dignitaries assembled at the palace, where shortly after sunrise the sultan mounted his horse and rode passed his officials to attend prayers at Aya Sofya. After performing his prayers, the sultan returned to the palace and entered the royal chamber, where he sat on the throne with the grand vizier standing on his right and the chief eunuch standing on his left. The sons of the Han of Crimea, who lived as hostages at the Ottoman court, were the first to wish the sultan a happy bayram as they kissed the hem of his sleeve. To show his respect for them, the sultan walked three paces to meet them. Once the Tatar princes had retired, the grand vizier followed by kneeling in front of the sultan, kissing the hem of the sleeve of his royal master, and wishing him, on behalf of the entire government, happy and healthy festivities. After the grand vizier, the şeyhülislam led a delegation of religious dignitaries such as the kadiaskers (the highest religious judges under şeyhülislam), and the prominent Muslim scholars and preachers. The şeyhülislam approached the sultan, bowed his head to the ground, and, holding his hand on his girdle, kissed the sultan on the left shoulder. To express his respect for the religious establishment, the sultan walked one s
tep forward to meet the şeyhülislam.
Once these high dignitaries had expressed their wishes for a happy bayram, the sultan returned to his throne. Other high officials and dignitaries then followed as the grand vizier called out their names. The last to appear was always the commander of the janissary corps. With the end of this ceremony, the sultan retired to his harem, where the four principal pages responsible for the royal chambers (privy, treasury, larder, and campaign), followed by the chief eunuch and other pages, wished their royal master a happy bayram. Meanwhile, a sumptuous dinner was served in the divan for the grand vizier, his ministers, and other state dignitaries. The ceremony concluded after dinner, when the sultan presented a sable vest as a gift to each high government official. When the dignitaries had retired, the royal harem, including the mother and wives of the sultan, visited him to offer their homage and best wishes.
Outside the palace, before the arrival of the new month, the faithful who had fasted for 30 days made their customary fast offering. Such an offering required them to distribute among the poor and the needy a certain amount of wheat, barley, dates, and fruit. This purified their fast for it was believed that until a Muslim had distributed these gifts, or their equivalent in money, god kept his fasting suspended between heaven and earth. Among the wealthy and powerful families, every member of the household, including servants and slaves, received a valuable present according to their status, “the length and difficulty of their services,” or “the degree of favor in which” they “were held.”
In the Arab provinces of the empire, where this practice was called sadaqat ul-Fitr or zakat ul-Fitr, the alms were distributed one or even two nights before the end of Ramazan. The head of household was responsible to pay the alms on behalf of every member of his family. Approximately two kilograms of grains was distributed on behalf of each family member. Some among the rich and powerful chose to distribute money instead of grains or dates.
On the first day of the new month, men bathed, perfumed, and dressed in their finest clothing to attend congregational prayer. Having distributed their required alms, worshippers assembled outside their town or village in a large space especially set aside for the large congregation who attended the bayram prayer. There, led by an imam, they performed prayers. After the end of the prayer, the imam ascended the pulpit and delivered a sermon. The prayer marking the new month had no call to prayer and no iqama, which was called to make all in attendance aware that the prayer was getting underway. Once prayers had ended, all worshippers embraced and wished one another a happy and healthy bayram. They then returned to their homes, taking a different road from the one they had taken coming to the prayer.
On the occasion of the arrival of the bayram, parents bought new clothes for their children, who proudly displayed them as they walked through the streets. Women wore their best jewelry and most splendid dress. The rich and powerful distributed presents among their servants, dependents, and the poor. During congratulatory visits, the young kissed the right hands of the older members of the family, who gave them sweets.
An important part of the bayram was the restoration of friendship between those who had quarreled or hurt each other’s feelings. After the mid-day service at the mosque and exchange of visits, some people set off for cemeteries, where temporary markets were set up to sell flowers, prayer books, and water for watering the plants around the grave. The rest of the day was spent in relaxation and amusement, such as listening to performances by the janissary marching band (mehtaran) or watching the popular Karagöz and Hacivat shadow theater.
Hajj
The fifth pillar of Islam is hac (Arabic: hajj), or pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca in western Arabia. The journey is required of every Muslim who is physically and financially able. Islam allows those who can not tolerate the hardship of the journey to Mecca to perform it by proxy, requesting another Muslim, typically a friend or a relative, to act as a substitute. Hac serves as a unifying force by bringing Muslims of diverse racial, ethnic, and linguistic backgrounds together in a common set of religious rites. Once a believer has performed the pilgrimage, he adds the title of haci (hajji) to his name. The pilgrimage rite follows the pattern established by the prophet Muhammad during his life.
In the Ottoman era, before the pilgrim entered Mecca, he wore the ihram garments, consisting of two white seamless sheets without any ornamentation with one piece wrapped round the loins and the other covering the left shoulder and passed under the right armpit. He also took vows to avoid “quarrels, immorality, bad language, and light conversation,” while demonstrating his respect for the holy sanctuary “by sparing the trees” and not plucking “a single blade of grass.” The pilgrim was also obligated to abstain from using “all oils, perfumes, and unguents; from washing the head with mallow or with lote leaves;” and from “dyeing, shaving, cutting” his hair. For “each infraction of these ordinances,” he had to sacrifice a sheep. After a complete ablution and assuming the ihram, the pilgrims performed prayers, and recited the meritorious sentences beginning with the words, “Here I am, O God, here I am . . .”
Once he had arrived in Mecca, the pilgrim walked around the Ka’ba seven times, kissed the Black Stone (Hajar al-Aswad), prayed twice, and walked seven times between Mount Safa and Mount Marwa. On the seventh of Zilhice, the last month in the Islamic calendar, the pilgrim was reminded of his duties. During the second stage of the hac, which took place between the eighth and the twelfth days of the month, the pilgrim visited the holy places outside Mecca and sacrificed an animal in commemoration of Abraham’s sacrifice. Men shaved their heads, and after throwing seven stones at each of the three pillars at Mina that represented the devil, the pilgrims returned to Mecca to perform the farewell tawaf, or circling of the Ka’ba, before leaving the city.
The number of those who performed the hac every year is unknown, but at least one European writer who lived in Istanbul in the 1660s estimated the total number of the pilgrims to be “about fifty thousand souls.” The sultan did not perform the pilgrimage in person, but he appointed a commander of the pilgrims, who carried a letter of compliments and greetings from the sultan to the Sharif of Mecca, who acted as the governor of the city. The commander of the pilgrims was accompanied by a large military escort, which was responsible for transporting the royal gifts that were sent to Mecca and Medina for the relief of the poor and for the bribe paid to the Bedouin tribesmen who raided and looted pilgrim caravans. The royal caravan and its military escort also carried a new kiswah, or the cloth covering for the Ka’ba. As the old hanging was pulled down, the pilgrims tore it into pieces and carried it home as a relic and token of their pilgrimage. Two royal camels, decorated with flowers and other ornaments, were the most attractive features of the procession. The first camel carried “a high pinnacled litter” called the mahmil, which represented the sultan’s authority. The second camel’s green velvet and silver saddle was intended to resemble the prophet Muhammad’s own saddle. On the appearance of the two camels, a great stir moved through the crowd who shouted: “Allah” in welcome. The camels were followed by an army of grooms and attendants carrying supplies, including the tents that provided protection and covering for the sultan’s mahmil. After the end of the procession, the camels, which had performed the journey, were declared exempt from all labor and service.
KURBAN BAYRAMI
Muslims across the empire celebrated the Kurban Bayrami (the Feast of Sacrifice) or Büyük Bayrami (Greater Festival) (Arabic: Eid ul-Adha) on the tenth of Zilhice (Arabic: Dhu-l Hijjah), the last month in the Islamic calendar. The four-day festivities commemorated Abraham’s unflinching devotion to God by his willingness to sacrifice his son Ishmael (substituted for Isaac in the Muslim version of the story). In Istanbul, for several days prior to the feast, shepherds from all over Anatolia brought thousands of sheep into the open space in front of the Bayezid Mosque, where heads of households gathered. A sheep, with its fleece colored with henna or cochineal and its horns covered with gold leaf,
was taken home with help from the children of the family, who were responsible for its food and water.
In the morning of the festival, Muslims gathered in a place outside the city, town, or village, to perform their prayers. Once everyone had assembled, the imam took his place in front of the congregation and led them in prayer. After the prayer had ended, the imam ascended the pulpit and delivered a sermon on the meaning and significance of the festival. When he had finished his sermon, the attendants returned home, where the head of the family took the sheep and, at times, the goat, camel, or cow, he had bought and turned its head toward Mecca, said a prayer, uttered the takbir (“Allahu Akbar” or “God is great “) three times and requested “the gracious acceptance of the sacrifice,” by uttering bismillah (in the name of Allah/God). He then slaughtered the animal. Every head of a family sacrificed “an animal with his own hands and every male member of his household” was “at liberty to indulge his piety in a similar manner,” but the head of the family was “bound to observe” the ceremony.
No animal was lawful food unless it was slaughtered according to the Islamic law. The Muslim had to draw the knife across the throat and cut the windpipe, the carotid arteries, and the gullet repeating at the same time bismillah, and Allahu akbar. The meat was divided into three portions, of which one was shared with the poor, another was given to relatives, and the third was kept for home consumption. The animal had to be “of a fixed age and be free” from “certain blemishes” (lack of an eye, lameness, etc.).
The sultan celebrated the opening of the Feast of Sacrifice surrounded by government officials and court dignitaries, who attended the ceremonies with him at an imperial mosque, while the crowds cheered. Upon returning to his palace, the sultan put on “a sacrificial dress,” and slaughtered an animal with his own hands. The first sheep he slaughtered was for himself, but he afterwards offered one for each member of the royal family. At the conclusion of this ceremony, the sultan hosted a grand reception for state officials and grandees, as well as foreign ambassadors and dignitaries, who offered him their congratulations.