33 “Shafter’s Men to Flee from Fever,” NYT, Aug. 5, 1898, 7. See also, Nicholas Senn, “The Invasion of Porto Rico from a Medical Standpoint,” MN, 73 (Sept. 17, 1898), 369.
34 McKinley, in DODGECOM, vol. 1, 237.
35 Reed quoted in Gaines M. Foster, “The Demands of Humanity: Army Medical Disaster Relief ” (Washington, U.S. Army, 1983), ch. 3, p. 2, http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/misc/disaster/default.htm, accessed June 23, 2008. McCulloch, “Scientific and Administrative Achievement,” 414, 419. Cirillo, Bullets and Bacilli, 111–35. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, War Epidemics, 370–96.
36 J. N. Taylor, “Cleansing Cities,” BG, Mar. 16, 1900, 3. Captain L. P. Davison, “Sanitary Work in Porto Rico,” Independent, Aug. 10, 1899, 2128, 2131. Foster, “Demands of Humanity,” ch. 3,p. 4. See Martin V. Melosi, The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999).
37 USPC 1905, Appendix A: “Report of the Commissioner of Public Health, Sept. 1, 1904, to August 31, 1905,” 72. Davison, “Sanitary Work,” 2131. See USPC 1905, 10.
38 Taylor, “Cleansing Cities.”
39 Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, War Epidemics, 625–39, 685. Matthew Smallman-Raynor and Andrew D. Cliff, “War and Disease: Some Perspectives on the Spatial and Temporal Occurrence of Tuberculosis in Wartime,” in Return of the White Plague: Global Poverty and the “New” Tuberculosis , ed. Matthew Grandy and Alimuddin Zumla (London: Verso, 2003), esp. 70–76.
40 Clara Barton, The Red Cross: A History of This Remarkable International Movement in the Interest of Humanity (Washington: American National Red Cross, 1898), 520. “Havana Now a Pest Hole,” NYT, May 29, 1898, 12. “Topics of the Times,” ibid., Mar. 18, 1897, 6. “Smallpox Ravaging Cuba,” ibid., Mar. 31, 1897, 2. “Big Conspiracy in Cuba,” ibid., Jan. 1, 1898, 3.
41 Senn, “Invasion of Porto Rico,” 369, 370, 372.
42 De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, ix, 8–44, esp. 18; Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, War Epidemics, 311.
43 De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 41.
44 Hoyt quoted in Anderson, Colonial Pathologies, 38–39; ibid., 31. See Senn, “Invasion of Puerto Rico,” 369.
45 John Van Rensselaer Hoff, “The Share of the ‘White Man’s Burden’ That Has Fallen to the Medical Departments of the Public Services in Puerto Rico,” PMJ, 5 (Apr. 7, 1900), 797. De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 43. Arnold, “Smallpox and Colonial Medicine,” 48.
46 McCulloch, “Scientific and Administrative Achievement,” 422. Mary C. Gillett, “U.S. Army Medical Officers and Public Health in the Philippines in the Wake of the Spanish-American War, 1898–1905,” BHM, 64 (1990), 567–81, esp. 581. Foster, “Demands of Humanity,” ch. 3, 4–5. See Davison, “Sanitary Work.”
47 John Van R. Hoff, “Report of the Superior Board of Health of Porto Rico,” June 30, 1900, in USPRMG 1900, 479.
48 Davison, “Sanitary Work,” 2130. George M. Sternberg, “Report of the Surgeon General,” in USWDAR 1899, Reports of the Chiefs of Bureaus, vol. 1, part 2: 597–98. P. Villoldo, “Smallpox and Vaccination in Cuba,” 1914 article reprinted in “Public Health Reports 2006 Supplement 1,” PHR, 121 (2006): 47–49. See also Foster, “Demands of Humanity,” ch. 3, 7–8; and Mariola Espinosa, Epidemic Invasions: Yellow Fever and the Limits of Cuban Independence, 1878–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009).
49 Hoff, “Share of the ‘White Man’s Burden,’ ” 797, 796.
50 James Robb Church, “John Van R. Hoff,” Military Surgeon (1920), 204–7. “Approves Hoff Memorial,” NYT, Jan. 26, 1931, 14. Gillett, Army Medical Department, 84–87, 197 note 15. See Jacob A. Riis, Theodore Roosevelt, the Citizen (New York: The Outlook Co., 1904).
51 Church, “John Van R. Hoff,” esp. 205. John Van Rensselaer Hoff, “Experience of the Army with Vaccination as a Prophylactic Against Smallpox,” Military Surgeon (1911), 492.
52 Gillett, Army Medical Department, 258. Hoff, “Experience of the Army with Vaccination,” 493. C. H. Alden, “Puerto Rico; Its Climate and Its Diseases,” NYMJ, 74 (1901), 21.
53 Alden, “Puerto Rico,” esp. 19. For a useful contemporary overview of the island, from the Army’s perspective, see USPRMG 1900.
54 USPRMG 1900, 26, 152. Alden, “Puerto Rico,” 19–22, esp. 19. Report of Brig. Gen. Geo. W. Davis, U.S.V. on Civil Affairs of Puerto Rico 1899 (Washington, 1900), 18.
55 Major Azel Ames, “Vaccination of Porto Rico—A Lesson to the World,” Pacific Medical Journal, 45 (1902), 518. Alden, “Puerto Rico,” 19. USPRMG 1900, 94.
56 USPRMG 1900, 19–20, 23, 26. Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S 244 (1901). See Robert McGreevey, “Borderline Citizens: Puerto Ricans and the Politics of Migration, Race, and Empire, 1898–1948,” PhD diss., Brandeis University, 2008.
57 George M. Sternberg, “Smallpox,” in USWDAR 1899, Reports of the Chiefs of Bureaus, 596–602, esp. 598. Ames, “Compulsory Vaccination Essential,” 722. George G. Groff, “Vaccinating a Nation,” MN, Nov. 25, 1899, 679. Alden, “Puerto Rico,” 21.
58 Hoff, “Experience of the Army with Vaccination,” 492. “Small-Pox Scare,” PI, Oct. 9, 1898. “Deaths in Porto Rico,” DMN, Dec. 24, 1898, 3. Dr. S. H. Wadhams, “Smallpox in Puerto Rico,” YMJ, 6 (1899–1900), 279.
59 George Foy, “The Introduction of Vaccination to the Southern Continent of America and to the Philippene [sic] Islands,” Janus, 2 (1897–98): 216–20. See José G. Rigau-Perez, “The Introduction of Smallpox Vaccine in 1803 and the Adoption of Immunization as a Government Function in Puerto Rico,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 69 (1989): 393–423; Catherine Mark and José G. Rigau-Perez, “The World’s First Immunization Campaign: The Spanish Smallpox Vaccine Expedition, 1803–1813,” BHM, 83 (Spring 2009), 63–94.
60 Rigau-Perez, “Introduction of Smallpox Vaccine.”
61 Hoff, “Experience of the Army with Vaccination,” 492. USPRMG 1900, 150. Alden, “Puerto Rico,” 21. Groff, “Vaccinating a Nation,” 679–80. José G. Rigau-Perez, “Strategies That Led to the Eradication of Smallpox in Puerto Rico, 1882–1921,” BHM, 59 (1985), 75–88, esp. 79.
62 USPRMG 1900, 153.
63 “General Orders, No. 7,” Jan. 27, 1899, in USWDAR 1899, 572–73. C. H. Lavinder, “The Marine-Hospital Service,” in USPRMG 1900, 277–81.
64 Ames, “Compulsory Vaccination Essential,” 723.
65 Azel Ames published two detailed accounts of the vaccination campaign. Ames, “Compulsory Vaccination Essential” and “Vaccination of Porto Rico.” See Bhattacharya, Fractured States, 52–69; De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 105.
66 Ames, “Vaccination of Porto Rico,” 513. As a special commissioner with the Massachusetts Department of Labor in the 1870s, Ames published a pioneering study of women in industry. Ames, Sex in Industry: A Plea for the Working Girl (Boston: James R. Osgood and Company, 1875). Azel Ames appeared frequently in the newspapers. See “Suspension of a Boston Doctor from the Pension Bureau,” BG, Nov. 15, 1883, 6; “Indicted for Pension Frauds,” NYT, Mar. 26, 1884, 2; “Not Agreed as to His Guilt,” ibid., Jun. 25, 1885, 3; “Dr. Azel Ames Dead,” BG, Nov. 13, 1908, 8. He fell on hard times after returning from Puerto Rico, filing for bankruptcy in 1902. He died in the Danvers State Hospital for the Insane in 1908.
67 Ames, “Vaccination of Porto Rico,” 524, 523.
68 Ibid., 527, 525–26. Sternberg, “Report of the Surgeon General,” 598. Wadhams, “Smallpox in Puerto Rico,” 282.
69 Groff, “Vaccinating a Nation,” 680.
70 Sternberg, “Report of the Surgeon General,” 598. Groff, “Vaccinating a Nation,” 680, 681. Wadhams, “Smallpox in Puerto Rico,” 283. “Alumni and School Notes,” YMJ, 7 (1901), 333.
71 “Circular No. 3,” March 18, 1899, in “Report of Brig. Gen. Geo. W. Davis on Civil Affairs in Puerto Rico,” USWDAR 1899, 630. Groff, “Vaccinating a Nation,” 682.
72 Ames, “Vaccination of Porto Rico,” 529.
73 “General Order No. 80,” June 17, 1899, in “Report of Brig.
Gen. Geo. W. Davis on Civil Affairs in Puerto Rico,” 588.
74 Groff, “Vaccinating a Nation,” 681. Hoff, “Share of the ‘White Man’s Burden,’” 798.
75 Ames, “Compulsory Vaccination Essential,” 728. Hoff, “Share of the ‘White Man’s Burden,’” 799.
76 Ames, “Vaccination of Porto Rico,” 515, 517. Many positive stories on the Puerto Rican campaign appeared in American newspapers, usually as a new piece of evidence in the argument against the antivaccinationists. See, for example, “Latest Vaccination Argument,” Omaha World Herald, Aug. 24, 1902. “Vaccination in Porto Rico,” Duluth News-Tribune, Dec. 20, 1902, 6.
77 KBOH 1898–99, 115.
78 Secretary of State John Hay quoted in Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, ed. John M. Murrin and James M. McPherson (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1999), 739. Hoff, “Experience of the Army with Vaccination,” 493. Brian McAllister Linn, “The Long Twilight of the Frontier Army,” Western Historical Quarterly, 27 (1996), 142.
79 Charles R. Greenleaf, “A Brief Statement of the Sanitary Work So Far Accomplished in the Philippine Islands, and of the Present Shape of Their Sanitary Administration,” PHPR, 27 (1901), 164. Charles Burke Elliott, The Philippines, to the End of the Commission Government: A Study in Tropical Democracy (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1917), 186. See Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2006).
80 Greenleaf, “Brief Statement,” 163. The forty thousand figure, which appears to have originated with the U.S. colonial health official Victor Heiser, was widely quoted in official reports and press accounts and has since been accepted as at least plausible by leading historians of disease in the Philippines. Snodgrass, Sanitary Achievements in the Philippine Islands, 15. See also Elliott, Philippines , 187; Warwick Anderson, “Immunization and Hygiene in the Philippines,” JHMAS, 62 (2006), 8; De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 104, 117. “Filipino Minister Surrenders; Aguinaldo’s Infant Son Dies at Manila from Smallpox,” NYT, Mar. 16, 1900, 7. USSCOP, Part 3: 2033.
81 De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, esp. 94–95.
82 Ibid., 105–10, esp. 108. USPCRP 1901, vol. 14, 32. Anderson, “Immunization and Hygiene in the Philippines,” 5–6.
83 De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 41–42.
84 Greenleaf, “Brief Statement,” 157. “Testimony of Dr. Frank S. Bourns,” July 29, 1899, in USPCRP 1900, Vol. 2: Testimony and Exhibits (Washington, 1900), 347–68, esp. 348–49. (Hereafter Bourns, “Testimony.”) See Frank S. Bourns and Dean C. Worcester, Preliminary Notes on the Birds and Mammals Collected by the Menage Scientific Expedition to the Philippine Islands (Minneapolis: Harrison & Smith, 1894); and Kramer, Blood of Government, 180.
85 Frank S. Bourns, Report to Provost-Marshal-General, Jun. 30, 1899, in USWDAR 1899: Annual Report of the Major-General Commanding the Army, Part 2: 260–61. (Hereafter Bourns, “Report.”)
86 Bourns, “Testimony,” 350, 351. Bourns, “Report,” 260–61. Greenleaf, “Brief Statement,” 157–58. Foster, “Demands of Humanity,” ch. 3, p. 6. On the fascinating career of T. H. Pardo de Tavero, see Kramer, Blood of Government, 181–82.
87 Sternberg, “Smallpox,” 601, 596. Soldier quoted in De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 115. The Army also tightened the medical inspection and vaccination of troops before they disembarked at San Francisco and paid closer attention to the geographic and racial profile of the American recruits. Sternberg, “Smallpox,” 596–97.
88 55th Cong., 3d Session, Senate Doc. No. 99, Health of Troops in the Philippines [containing dispatch from Major-General Otis to Secretary Alger, dated Feb. 3, 1899], first page. Bourns, “Report,” 260.
89 Sternberg, “Smallpox,” 596, 600. “Smallpox Epidemic Among Troops at Manila,” Rocky Mountain News (Denver), Nov. 3, 1898, 5. “To Prevent Smallpox,” Grand Forks Herald, Mar. 25, 1899, 4.
90 Snodgrass, “Smallpox and Vaccination in the Philippine Islands,” 15.
91 Anderson, Colonial Pathologies, 38. See “Pesky Rebels,” LAT, Feb. 12, 1900; “Week of War,” BG, Apr. 23, 1900, 1.
92 Greenleaf, “Brief Statement,” 158. Le Roy, “Philippines Health Problem,” 778. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, War Epidemics, 311.
93 Maus quoted in De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 116. Gillett, Army Medical Department, 178.
94 USSGPHMHS 1904, 168. Taylor, “Cleaning Cities,” BG, Mar. 16, 1900, 3. Snodgrass, “Smallpox and Vaccination in the Philippines,” 15.
95 LeRoy, “Philippines Health Problem,” 778. Greenleaf, “Brief Statement,” 165, 159.
96 “Philippine Tariff Bill Passed by House,” NYT, Dec. 19, 1901, 1. On conditions in Batangas, see Florencio R. Caedo, provincial secretary, to William Howard Taft, Civil Governor of the Philippines, Dec. 18, 1901, in USSCOP, Part 2: 887. “Telegraphic Orders Issued by Brig. Gen. J. F. Bell to Station Commanders in the Provinces of Tayabas, Batangas, and Laguna,” in ibid., Part 2: 1606–31.
97 For concise accounts of the Batangas campaign, see Amy Blitz, The Contested State: American Foreign Policy and Regime Change in the Philippines (New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2000), 42–43; Kramer, Blood of Government, 152–54; and Brian McAllister Linn, The Philippine War, 1899–1902 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000), 219–24, 300–305. For a fuller history, see Glenn Anthony May, Battle for Batangas: A Philippine Province at War (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991).
98 Blitz, Contested State, 42–43.
99 Bell, “Telegraphic Circular No. 22,” Dec. 24, 1901, in USSCOP, Part II: 1628. Bell, “Telegraphic Circular No. 17,” Dec. 23, 1901, in ibid., Part II: 1621; “Telegraphic Circular No. 19,” Dec. 24, 1901, in ibid., Part II: 1621; “Telegraphic Circular No. 20,” in ibid., Part II: 1626.
100 On reconcentration, see Kramer, Blood of Government, 152–53.
101 Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, War Epidemics, 614–24. De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse.
102 USSCOP, Part 3: 2878.
103 “Directions for Vaccination of Natives. Copy of Telegram. Batangas, January 16, 10:40 a.m.,” in AGOMHP, Vol. 528: San Pablo, Laguna Province, P.I. [first entry], Dec. 31, 1901, 4. Accompanying telegram from General J. F. Bell in ibid., 4–5. See De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 117.
104 Blitz, Contested State, 43. Linn, Philippine War, 219. Smallman-Raynor and Cliff, War Epidemics, 307–48. On Filipinos’ memories of the epidemics and the war, see De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse , ix.
105 Edward Thomas Curran, “Treatment of Filipinos,” NYT, May 3, 1903, 23.
106 “Stamping Out Disease in the Philippines,” NYT, June 23, 1902, 1.
107 “Topics of the Times,” NYT, Aug. 18, 1902, 6. See, for example, “Havana’s Health Is Good: Wonderful Changes Wrought by the Army of Occupation,” WP, Mar. 23, 1902, 6; LeRoy, “Philippines Health Problem”; “Manila Is Healthful,” NYT, Aug. 19, 1903, 8; “Life in the Philippines,” Omaha World Herald, May 25, 1905, 4. See also Carl Crow, America and the Philippines (Garden City and New York: Doubleday, Page & Co., 1914), 107; Robley D. Evans, An Admiral’s Log: Being Continued Reflections of Naval Life (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1910), esp. 222–23; and the quotations presented in Kristine A. Campbell, “Knots in the Fabric: Richard Pearson Strong and the Bilibid Prison Vaccine Trials, 1905–1906,” BHM, 68 (1994), esp. 606–12.
108 USPC 1905, 72, 11. USSGPHMHS 1907, 81.
109 USPC 1907, 73, 76. Snodgrass, “Smallpox and Vaccination in the Philippines,” 15. In the finest study of the Philippine health crisis of the war years, Ken De Bevoise suggests that the claims of American officials in this regard should be taken seriously. Writing of the 1902–3 period, De Bevoise says, “The successful immunizations . . . may have provided a radical discontinuity with past experience sufficient to impel changed beliefs and behaviors. As popular resistance to vaccination began to break down, the cultural groundwork for future control efforts was laid.” De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 117.
&
nbsp; 110 USPC 1904, 105. De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 188. Warwick Anderson has suggested that “Probably not more than half the vaccinations were successful.” Anderson, “Immunization and Hygiene,” 9. Glynn and Glynn, Life and Death of Smallpox, 193. On eradication, see Ken De Bevoise, “Until God Knows When: Smallpox in Late-Colonial Philippines,” Pacific Historical Review, 59 (1990), 185; and De Bevoise, Agents of Apocalypse, 188. De Bevoise notes that “a case imported into Mindoro allowed the disease to take one last bow in 1948–1949.” Idem, “Until God Knows When,” 185.
111 Ames, “Vaccination of Porto Rico,” 513. USSGPHMHS 1907, 81. Snodgrass, “Smallpox and Vaccination in the Philippines,” 18.
FIVE: THE STABLE AND THE LABORATORY
1 “New Jersey Notes,” PI, June 3, 1902, 3. On the development of product liability law during the early twentieth century, see MacPherson v. Buick, 217 NY 382 (1916); and H. Gerald Chapin, Handbook of the Law of Torts (St. Paul: West Publishing Co. 1917), 517–20. See also Barbara Young Welke, Recasting American Liberty: Gender, Race, Law, and the Railroad Revolution, 1865–1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), esp. 14–20; John Fabian Witt, The Accidental Republic: Crippled Workingmen, Destitute Widows, and the Remaking of American Law (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), esp. 2–3, 75–76.
2 Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Annual Message of the President to Congress, Jan. 6, 1941 (excerpt), http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/decade01.asp, accessed March 3, 2009. Old-age pensions, unemployment insurance, compulsory health insurance, and labor regulations for men (outside of extremely dangerous industries such as mining) were dead on arrival in the United States. Escola v. Coca Cola Bottling Co., 24 Cal. 2d 453 (1944). See David A. Moss, Socializing Security: Progressive-Era Economists and the Origins of American Social Policy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995); Theda Skocpol, Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
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