31 “Smallpox on Cunard Liner,” NYT, June 19, 1900, 7. This practice continued for years. See “Vaccinate 1,045 Immigrants,” ibid., Oct. 25, 1909, 4. See Samuel W. Abbott, “Vaccination,” in A Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences, vol. 8: 147.
32 Amy L. Fairchild, Science at the Borders: Immigrant Medical Inspection and the Shaping of the Modern Industrial Labor Force (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003), 125.
33 Alfred C. Reed, “Going Through Ellis Island,” PSM, Jan. 1913, 5–18. Kraut, “Plagues and Prejudice,” 69. Nancy Foner, et al., eds., Immigration Research for a New Century: Multidisciplinary Perspectives (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2000), 96–99.
34 USSGPHMHS 1903, 20. Kraut, “Plagues and Prejudice,” 69, 70. Kraut, Silent Travelers, 55.
35 PHR, 14 (Feb. 24, 1899), 240, 241.
36 PHR, 14 (Mar. 3, 1899), 281. Ibid., 14 (Mar. 24, 1899), 390. Ibid., 14 (Feb. 24, 1899), 242. Ibid., 14 (Mar. 10, 1899), 311. Ibid., 14 (Mar. 31, 1899), 423. See Carlos E. Cuéllar, “Laredo Smallpox Riot,” Handbook of Texas Online, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/LL/jcl1.html (accessed April 15, 2009). See also John McKiernan, “Fevered Measures: Race, Communicable Disease, and Community Formation in the Texas-Mexico Border” (PhD diss, University of Michigan, 2002). Howard Markel and Alexandra Minna Stern, “The Foreignness of Germs: The Persistent Association of Immigrants and Disease in American Society,” Milbank Quarterly, 80 (2002), 765.
37 “Copy of letter addressed on October 2 [1905] by the vice-consul of France, at Colon, to the secretary of foreign affairs, Paris (American section),” in 59th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Doc. No. 127, Part 2: Isthmian Canal. Message from the President of the United States, Transmitting Certain Papers to Accompany His Message of January 8, 1906 ( Washington, 1906), 60. “Clubbed by Police,” WP, Oct. 2, 1905, 1. “No Vaccine for Them They Said,” El Águila de Puerto-Rico, Oct. 3, 1905, 1. See also “Club Canal Workmen to Force Them to Land,” NYT, Oct. 2, 1905, 1; “Laborers Who Leaped Overboard Safe,” ibid., Oct. 3, 1905, 6. Leon Pepperman, Who Built the Panama Canal? (New York: E. P. Dutton & Company, 1915), 273–74. See generally Julie Greene, The Canal Builders: Making America’s Empire at the Panama Canal (New York: The Penguin Press, 2009), 39–43.
38 Gustave Anguizola, “Negroes in the Building of the Panama Canal,” Phylon, 29 (1968), 351–59, esp. 355. See James C. Scott, Weapons of the Weak: Everyday Forms of Peasant Resistance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); and idem, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990).
39 James Nevins Hyde, “The Late Epidemic of Smallpox in the United States,” PSM, 59 (Oct. 1901), 567. “School Vaccinations,” American Medicine, précis in MR, Oct. 4, 1902, 547.
40 Dutch Doctor Barnes, “How to Produce a Scar Resembling Vaccination,” Medical Talk, 5 ( 1904), 308. This article was reprinted numerous times in journals sympathetic or dedicated to the cause of antivaccinationism, including The Liberator. “How to Produce a Scar Resembling Vaccination,” The Liberator, March 1908, reprinted in A Stuffed Club: A Journal of Rational Therapeutics, Part I, ed. John H. Tilden, orig. 1908, reprinted (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2003), 56. FBOH 1904, 69. See Nadav Davidovitch, “Negotiating Dissent: Homeopathy and Anti-Vaccinationism at the Turn of the Twentieth Century,” in The Politics of Healing, ed. Robert D. Johnston, 24–25.
41 Chapin, Municipal Sanitation, 573–80, esp. 579. Abbott, “Vaccination,” 120, 126.
42 Freund, Police Power, 109, 116.
43 Edwin Grant Dexter, A History of Education in the United States (New York: The Macmillan Company 1904), appendices. Chapin, Municipal Sanitation, 575–78.
44 Hunter Boyd in Proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction at the Thirtieth Annual Session Held in the City of Atlanta, May 6–12, 1903 (1903), 110. George M. Kober, “The Progress and Tendency of Hygiene and Sanitary Science in the Nineteenth Century,” JAMA, Jun. 8, 1901, 1624. “Medical Inspection in the Schools,” NYT, Sept. 27, 1903, 6. See Judith Sealander, The Failed Century of the Child: Governing America’s Young in the Twentieth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003); and David Tyack, “Health and Social Services in Public Schools: Historical Perspectives,” The Future of Children, 2 (Spring 1992), 19–31.
45 “Vaccination Certificate Frauds,” NYT, May 9, 1904, 8. “Vaccination,” CT, reprinted in NYT, Jun. 24, 1900, 20. “Led Scarless Kids to School,” AC, Dec. 5, 1902, 2.
46 Martin Friedrich, “How We Rid Cleveland of Smallpox,” CMJ, 1 (Feb. 1902), 78. See also “Compulsory Vaccination Upheld,” NYT, Sept. 1, 1901, 8; “Vaccination Stirs Revolt,” ibid., Feb. 5, 1906, 1; “Teacher Must Be Vaccinated,” ibid., Nov. 15, 1901, 7. “Teachers Opposed Vaccination Census,” PMJ, 9 (Mar. 8, 1902), 42.
47 “New Jersey Smallpox Panic,” NYT, Dec. 8, 1901, 8. “Smallpox Scare’s Hardships,” ibid., Dec. 29, 1900, 8. “Smallpox in the State,” PMJ, 9 (Feb. 1, 1902), 195.
48 On labor law during this period, see generally, William E. Forbath, Law and the Shaping of the American Labor Movement (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991).
49 “Over a Thousand Vaccinated,” NYT, Jan. 18, 1901, 2. On railroads’ liability, see “Agency—Notice to Agent Is Notice to Principal—Liability of Carrier,” in “Recent Decisions,” Columbia Law Review , 7 (May 1907), 360. For examples of compulsion, see (re: United Traction Company of Albany, New York) “To Vaccinate 500 Street Railway Men,” NYT, Jan. 17, 1901, 5; and (re: Pennsylvania RR Corp.), “Vaccination,” NYT, Dec. 18, 1903, 8. “Orders 300,000 Vaccinated,” CT, Feb. 14, 1903. On the Frick Company, see American Iron and Steel Institute, Directory to the Iron and Steel Works of the United States (Philadelphia, 1904), 72–73.
50 “Factory Girls’ Resistance,” NYT, Apr. 12, 1901, 3.
51 Martin Friedrich, “How We Rid Cleveland of Smallpox,” CMJ, 1 (Feb. 1902): 77–78. “Smallpox at Stockport,” NYT, June 16, 1900, 10.
52 “Miners Resist Vaccination,” NYT, Apr. 25, 1902, 1.
53 “Wage War on Smallpox,” CT, Feb. 4, 1902, 2. “Smallpox in Chicago,” PMJ, 9 (Feb. 22, 1902), 344. “Roads to Fight Smallpox,” NYT, Feb. 14, 1902, 2.
54 MBOH 1899–1901, 3–4. “Compulsory Vaccination for Rhode Island,” PMJ, 9 (Mar 1902), 386. “In Senate,” Chicago Medical Recorder, 20 (June 1901): 604.
55 JAMA, Jun. 15, 1901, 1712. Journal of Proceedings of the Forty-Fifth Session of the Wisconsin Legislature, 1901 (Madison, WI, 1901), 926. “Compulsory Vaccination,” Wasatch Wave (Utah), Feb. 1, 1901. General Laws of the State of Minnesota, Passed During the Thirty-Third Session of the State Legislature (St. Paul, 1903), ch. 299, 530.
56 “Topics of the Times,” NYT, Jan. 19, 1901, 8. James Colgrove, “Between Persuasion and Compulsion: Smallpox Control in Brooklyn and New York, 1894–1902,” BHM, 78 (2004), 372. “Compulsory Vaccination,” PMJ, 9, Mar. 15, 1902, 466. “Smallpox in Hospitals,” NYT, Mar. 14, 1902, 2.
57 NYCBOH 1901, 12.
58 NYCBOH 1902, 18. Ernest J. Lederle, “Municipal Suppression of Infection and Contagion,” North American Review, 174 (June 1902), 769–77.
59 NYCBOH 1902, 8, 92. “Physician Badly Scares Trolley Car Passengers,” NYT, Mar. 28, 1902, 1. “Smallpox Panic in Harlem,” NYT, Apr. 28, 1902, 2.
60 “Smallpox Patient Taken from Tenement,” NYT, Nov. 23, 1902, 19.
61 NYCBOH 1903, 8–9, 62, 238.
62 “Keeping the Health of a City,” Scientific American, 89 (Oct. 10, 1903), 254.
63 “Fusion Campaign Cards,” NYT, Oct. 9, 1903, 2. See also “Citizens’ Union Campaign,” ibid., Sept. 21, 1903, 2; and “Mayor Low’s Superb Administration,” ibid., Oct. 12, 1903, 1. “Dr. E. J. Lederle Dies in Sanitarium,” ibid., Mar. 15, 1921, 11.
64 “Compulsory Vaccination,” CT, Mar. 13, 1899, 6; “Wages War on Smallpox,” ibid., Jan. 28, 1900, 34. “The Cambridge Smallpox Epidemic,” MN, June 28, 1902, 1230. “Virus Squad Out,” BG, Nov. 18, 1901, 7. BOSHD 1901, 45.
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65 Carl Lorenz, Tom L. Johnson: Mayor of Cleveland (New York: A. S. Barnes Company, 1911), 57–58. Friedrich, “How We Rid Cleveland,” 78.
66 Friedrich, “How We Rid Cleveland,” 88. Annual Report of the Public Health Division, Department of Police, of the City of Cleveland, Ohio, For the Year Ending December 31st, 1901 (Cleveland, 1902), 5, 16.
67 Belt quoted in Friedrich, “How We Rid Cleveland,” 87. Ibid., 89. “Editorial: Smallpox, Vaccination and Disinfection,” CMJ, 1 (Feb. 1902), 119–20. “How Cleveland Stamped Out Smallpox Without Vaccination,” PMJ, 10 (Oct. 11, 1902), 486. For examples of antivaccinationists’ praising Friedrich’s disinfection campaign, see B. O. Flower, “How Cleveland Stamped Out Smallpox,” Arena, 27 (Apr. 1902), 426–29; C. F. Nichols, Vaccination: A Blunder in Poisons, 2d ed. (Boston: Blackwell and Churchill Press, 1902), 22–28.
68 Friedrich in Annual Report of the Department of Public Health of the City of Cleveland, Ohio, For the Year Ending December 31st, 1903 (Cleveland, 1904), 937–42, esp. 937. “Vaccination Is the Only Remedy,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, Jun. 20, 1902. Annual Report of the Department of Police, Public Health Division of the City of Cleveland, Ohio, For the Year Ending December 31, 1902 (Cleveland, 1903), 20. “Vaccinate!” CMJ, 1 (May 1902): 279–80. “The Smallpox Situation,” ibid., 1 (July 1902): 383. “How Cleveland Was Rid of Smallpox?” ibid., 1 ( 1902): 470–73. “Smallpox Decreasing,” ibid., 1 (Dec. 1902): 568. “Vaccination in Cleveland,” ibid., 1 (Dec. 1902): 571–72. “The Smallpox Situation in Ohio,” ibid., 2 (Feb. 1903): 96–97.
69 “Smallpox in the State,” PMJ, 9 (Jan. 25, 1902), 155.
70 On Roseto, see Stewart Wolf and John G. Bruhn, The Power of Clan: The Influence of Human Relationships on Heart Disease (Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1998), esp. 13–24.
71 Leroy Parker and Robert H. Worthington, The Law of Public Health and Safety, and the Powers and Duties of Boards of Health (Albany, NY: Matthew Bender, 1892), 131. See “Many Tricks of the Ignorant Poor to Hide Contagious Diseases from the Health Board,” NYTRIB, Aug. 2, 1903, 3. See also “Girl Hid from Vaccinators,” NYT, Mar. 14, 1901, 3; “Smallpox Nest in Brooklyn,” ibid., Mar. 20, 1901, 2; “Defies the Health Board,” ibid., Jul. 14, 1901, 3.
72 Chapin, Municipal Sanitation, 607–8.
73 “New Orleans Pesthouse,” NYT, Apr. 1, 1900, 2. “Lay All Blame on Pest House,” Salt Lake Herald, Jun. 2, 1903, 2. “At North Brother Island,” NYT, Jun. 16, 1901, 20. “Wrong Body Sent Home,” ibid., Nov. 25, 1901, 11.
74 Kirk v. Board of Health, 83 S.C. 372 (1909), 374, 384, 383. Samuel W. Abbott, “Legislation with Reference to Small-Pox and Vaccination,” MC, Jan. 1, 1902, 155.
75 “Hospital Spread of Smallpox,” JAMA, June 16, 1894, reprinted in ibid., June 15, 1994, 1812. “AirBorne Smallpox,” Scientific American Supplement, 1422 (Apr. 4, 1903): 22737–38. London Times quoted in ibid., 22737.
76 NCBOH 1903–04, 16 (recalling Durham episode circa 1899). “North Side Men Indignant,” Omaha Daily Bee, Jan. 17, 1899, 5; “Object to the Pest House,” ibid., Jul. 11, 1899, 7. “Fire Destroys Pest House,” ibid., Nov. 9, 1899, 12; “Cause of Action Burned,” ibid., Nov. 14, 1899, 7. On Houston, see “City Council Meeting,” Houston Daily Post, Nov. 21, 1899, 6. On Union County, see “Here and There,” Hopkinsville Kentuckian, Apr. 17, 1900, 8. On Bradford, see “Pest House Fired by Mob,” AC, Apr. 12, 1901, 3. On Turtle Creek, see “Quaker Mob Defies Sheriff,” AC, May 14, 1900, 1.
77 “Tried to Burn a Smallpox Hospital,” NYT, Mar. 10, 1901, 3. “Police at Orange Hospital,” ibid., Mar. 11, 1901, 3. “Smallpox Hospital Razed by Mob,” ibid., Mar. 12, 1901, 2. “Hospital Ruins Set on Fire,” ibid., Mar. 13, 1901, 2.
78 “The Outrage at Orange,” ibid., Mar. 13, 1901, 8. “Orange’s Smallpox Hospital,” ibid., Mar. 14, 1901, 3. “Plea of an Orange Resident,” ibid., Mar. 15, 1901, 8.
79 Potts v. Breen, 167 Ill. 67, 76 (1897).
80 Jack London, War of the Classes (New York: Macmillan Co., 1905), 276–77.
81 Ibid. Jack London, The Road (New York: Macmillan, 1907, 1916), 74–97, esp. 90.
82 London, The Road, 90.
SEVEN:THE ANTIVACCINATIONISTS
1 “The Smallpox Versus Dr. Pfeiffer,” MN, Feb. 22, 1902, 363. “The Case of Dr. Pfeiffer,” BMSJ, 146 (1902): 201–11.
2 “Quarantine More Rigid,” BG, Nov. 26, 1901, 4. Durgin repeated his challenge at the annual meeting of the Massachusetts boards of health; “Smallpox Talk,” ibid., Jan. 31, 1902, 2.
3 BOSHD 1901, 43–45. “Smallpox in Roxbury,” BG, May 18, 1901, 9. “First Death from Smallpox,” ibid., Oct. 27, 1901, 16. “Boston’s Weekly Health Report,” ibid., Nov. 3, 1901, 16. “Ninety Percent Not Vaccinated,” ibid., Nov. 23, 1901, 11. “Eight New Cases,” ibid., Nov. 25, 1901, 8. “Virus Squad Out,” ibid., Nov. 18, 1901, 7. See Michael Albert et al., “The Last Smallpox Epidemic in Boston and the Vaccination Controversy, 1901–1902,” NEJM, 344 (Feb. 1, 2001), 375–79; and Michael Albert et al., “Smallpox Manifestations and Survival during the Boston Epidemic of 1901 to 1903,” AIM, 137 (Dec. 17, 2002): 993–1000. In a study of surviving medical files from the Southampton Street hospital, Albert et al. concluded that “the Boston epidemic was caused by the classic variola major form” of the smallpox virus. Ibid., 993.
4 “Vaccination Is the Curse of Childhood,” antivaccination circular distributed during the epidemic of smallpox in Boston, 1901, Countway Library of Medicine, Harvard University, http://pds.lib.harvard.edu/pds/view/5817279, accessed Jul. 8, 2009. Samuel W. Abbott, “Legislation with Reference to Small-Pox and Vaccination,” MC, 19 (1902), 163.
5 “Retirement of Dr. Samuel H. Durgin from the Boston Board of Health,” AJPH, 2 (May 1912): 384–95; C. V. Chapin, “Doctor Samuel H. Durgin,” ibid., 357–58. “Vaccination Is the Curse.”
6 “Pfeiffer Yet Alive,” BG, Feb. 10, 1902, 1. “Wonderful, But True,” advertisement, ibid., Jul. 22, 1900, 22. “His Long Fast Broken,” ibid., Mar. 27, 1900, 6. “Dr. Pfeiffer Protests,” ibid., Apr. 29, 1901, 8. “Dr. Pfeiffer Has Smallpox,” ibid., Feb. 9, 1902, 1. “In the Interest of Science, Boston Physician Fasts a Month,” SFC, Aug. 24, 1901, 6. Pfeiffer’s interest in free speech made him known to the radical Emma Goldman, who nursed him in 1904, when he was stricken with pneumonia. Emma Goldman to Alexander Berkman, Jan. 18, 1904, in Emma Goldman: A Documentary History of the American Years: Making Speech Free, 1902–1909, ed. Candace Falk (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008), vol. 2: 129. On Our Home Rights, see “Exchanges,” Metaphysical Magazine, Jan. 1902, 77–78. Tenth Census of the United States (1880): Schedule 1—Population: Franklin, Gloucester, New Jersey, Enumeration District No. 92.
7 “Its Big Benefits,” BG, Dec. 20, 1901, 5. “Dr. John H. McCollom,” NYT, Jun. 15, 13. Advertisement for Harvard University Medical Department, BMSJ, 143 (Nov. 22, 1900), 34. See, e.g., C.-E. A. Winslow, “The Case for Vaccination,” SCI, new ser., 18 (1903): 101–7.
8 “Its Big Benefits.”
9 Pfeiffer to Durgin, quoted in “Smallpox Versus Dr. Pfeiffer,” 363.
10 Figures from BOSHD 1901, 44–45. Quote from BOSHD 1902, 36. “Smallpox Decreasing,” BG, Dec. 27, 1901, 7.
11 William N. Macartney, Fifty Years a Country Doctor (New York: E. P. Dutton & Company, 1938), 245. “Pfeiffer Yet Alive,” BG, Feb. 10, 1902, 1. “Funeral Friday of Dr. Paul Carson,” ibid., Nov. 28, 1923, 6.
12 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, The Journal of the Senate for the Year 1902 (Boston, 1902), 333. “Dr. Pfeiffer Has Smallpox.”
13 “Current Comment,” PMJ, 9 (Jan. 4, 1902), 5. Macartney, Fifty Years, 246. KBOH 1898–99, 98. California State Medical Journal, January 1905, quoted in FBOH 1904, 114. Dr. James Nevins Hyde, “The Late Epidemic of Smallpox in the United States,” PSM, 59 (Oct. 1901), 565. Michael Specter, “The Fear Factor,” New Yorker, Oct. 12, 2009, 39.
14 C. F. Nichols, Vaccination: A Blunder in Poisons, 61. “Opposed to Vaccination,” NYT, Mar. 29, 1902, 10. The threat of gunplay was a cliché of manly antiv
accinationist speech. “I would stand in my door with a Winchester and a brace of six-shooters and forbid any such outrages upon my family, if it cost me my life. Every other free, brave man would do the same.” “Vaccination Tyranny,” The Life (“A monthly magazine of Christian metaphysics”), November 1905, 222–23.
15 Samuel W. Abbott, The Past and Present Conditions of Public Hygiene and State Medicine in the United States (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1900).
16 John Pitcairn, Vaccination (Anti-Vaccination League of Pennsylvania, 1907), 8. “John Pitcairn,” NYT, Jul. 23, 1916, 17. Following historian Steven Hahn, I am employing “a broad understanding of politics and the political that is relational and historical, and that encompasses collective struggles for what might be termed socially meaningful power.” A Nation Under Our Feet, 3. See James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance.
17 “Will Ignore Leverson,” NYT, Aug. 17, 1900, 2. “Defies the Health Board,” ibid., Jan. 7, 1901, 2. “To Lead Fight on Vaccination,” CT, Jan. 6, 1901, A2. For a revealing study of late nineteenth-century libertarian radicalism in America, see David M. Rabban, Free Speech in Its Forgotten Years, esp. 23–76. On the transformation of governance in the Progressive Era, see Michael Willrich, City of Courts.
18 “An Anti-Vaccination Riot in Montreal,” MR, 28 (Oct. 3, 1885), 380. Jeffrey D. Needell, “The Revolta Contra Vacina of 1904: The Revolt Against ‘Modernization’ in Belle-Epoque Rio de Janeiro,” Hispanic American Historical Review, 60 (1980): 431–49.
19 “The Hon. Frederick Douglass,” Vaccination Inquirer and Health Review (London), 4 (Mar. 1883), 200. (Excerpt from an 1882 letter.) Paul Finkelman, “Garrison’s Constitution: The Covenant of Death and How It Was Made, Prologue, 32 (Winter 2000), http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2000/winter/garrisons-constitution-1.html, accessed Jun. 12, 2009. Pfeiffer quoted in “Exchanges,” in Metaphysical Magazine, Jan. 1902, 77. J. W. Hodge, The Vaccination Superstition: Prophylaxis to Be Realized Through the Attainment of Health, Not by the Propagation of Disease (read before the Western New York Homeopathic Medical Society in Buffalo, Apr. 11, 1902), pamphlet held at CHM, 49. “Dr. Jas. M. Peebles Dies, Almost 100,” NYT, Feb. 16, 1922, 12. On British antivaccinationists and their appropriation of abolitionist rhetoric, see Durbach, Bodily Matters, esp. 83–84. The papers of William Lloyd Garrison, Jr., including two boxes of materials on “Anti-Vaccination” (Boxes 176 and 177), are part of GFP.
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