111 “Compulsory Vaccination,” editorial, Wisconsin Medical Journal, 3 (March 1905), 588. Dr. Hix of Binghamton, New York, in New York State Department of Health, Proceedings of the Conference of Sanitary Officers of the State of New York (Albany, 1905), 38. “Compulsory Vaccination,” Boston Journal, Feb. 22, 1905, 6. Untitled editorial, NYT, Feb. 22, 1905, 6. See also “Vaccination Right,” BG, Feb. 21, 1905, 7; “Vaccination by Law,” WP, Feb. 21, 1905, 11; “A Test Case,” CC, Feb. 25, 1905, 12.
112 Untitled editorial item, Book Notes, May 6, 1905, 71. “Compulsory Vaccination,” Medical Advance, March 1905, 166. On antivaccinationism in the 1910s and 1920s, see James Colgrove, State of Immunity, 45–80.
113 “The State’s Police Power,” NYTRIB, Feb. 26, 1905, 8.
114 Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 ( 1905). E. F. [Ernst Freund], “Limitations of Hours of Labor and the Federal Supreme Court,” Green Bag, 17 (July 1905), 411–17.
115 Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45, 72 (1905).
116 Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45, 75–76 (1905).
117 Charles Warren, “The Progressiveness of the United States Supreme Court,” Columbia Law Review , 13 (1913). On the “myth” of Lochner, see William J. Novak, “The Myth of the ‘Weak’ American State,” American Historical Review, 113 (2008): 752–72. For a fuller discussion of legal progressivism and the police power after Lochner, see Willrich, City of Courts, esp. 96–115. See also Morton J. Horwitz, The Transformation of American Law, 1870–1960: The Crisis of Legal Orthodoxy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
118 William Howard Taft, The Anti-Trust Act and the Supreme Court (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1914), 43–44, 45.
119 Investigation Case Files of the Bureau of Investigation 1908–1922, Old German Files, 1909–1921, National Archives and Record Administration, Case # 17615; Case Title: Sedition; Suspect Name: Lora C. Little. Ibid., Case # 175676; Case Title: Neutrality Matter; Suspect Name: William Heupel. Ibid., Case # 178488; Case Title: General War Matter; Suspect Name: Mrs. Walter B. Henderson. I accessed these files via the online database Footnote.com, Dec. 10, 2007.
120 Holmes to Hand, June 24, 1918, in Gerald Gunther, “Learned Hand and the Origins of Modern First Amendment Doctrine: Some Fragments of History,” Stanford Law Review, 27 (1975), Appendix, 757.
121 Schenck v. U.S., 249 U.S. 47, 52 (1919). Abrams v. U.S., 250 U.S. 616, 628 (1919), emphasis added. For a fascinating analysis of “Holmes’s Transformation in Abrams,” see David M. Rabban, Free Speech in Its Forgotten Years, 346–54.
122 Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200, 207 (1927).
123 Michigan v. Tyler, 436 U.S. 499, 509 (1977). Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 508, 592 (2004) (Justice Thomas dissenting opinion).
124 Concurring opinion in Doe v. Bolton, 410 U.S. 179, 213–14 (1973). Majority opinion in Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 404 U.S. 833, 857 (1992).
125 Jacobson v. Massachusetts, 197 U.S. 11, 29.
EPILOGUE
1 BOSHD 1902, 36. Michael R. Albert et al., “The Last Smallpox Epidemic in Boston and the Vaccination Controversy, 1901–1903,” NEJM, 344 (2001), 377. John Duffy, A History of Public Health in New York City, 564. Gretchen A. Condran et al., “The Decline in Mortality in Philadelphia from 1870–1930: The Role of Municipal Services,” in Sickness and Health in America, 3rd ed., ed. Judith Walzer Leavitt and Ronald L. Numbers, 452–66. “Seattle’s worst smallpox epidemic was in 1901–02; 642 reported cases, four deaths.” “Medicine: Smallpox Epidemic,” Time, Apr. 8, 1946.
2 C.-E. A. Winslow, “The Untilled Fields of Public Health,” SCI, 51 (Jan. 9, 1920), 30. On this point, see James A. Tobey, Public Health Law, 1–6. Franklin H. Top and Laura E. Peck, “A Small Outbreak of Smallpox in Detroit,” AJPH, 33 (1943): 490–98, esp. 491, 492.
3 J. P. Leake, “United States Lags in Fight Against Smallpox,” Science News Letter, 29 (1936), 213. A. W. Hedrich, “Changes in the Incidence and Fatality of Smallpox in Recent Decades,” PHR, 51 (Apr. 3, 1936): 363–92. Robert D. Johnston, The Radical Middle Class, 183.
4 “The Anti-Vaccinationists,” Southern Medical Journal, 14 (1921), 503. Zucht v. King, 260 U.S. 174 (1922).
5 Williams quoted in “Medicine: Smallpox Epidemic.”
6 Hedrich, “Changes in the Incidence and Fatality of Smallpox,” 366. Judith Walzer Leavitt, “ ‘Be Safe. Be Sure.’: New York City’s Experience with Epidemic Smallpox,” in Hives of Sickness: Public Health and Epidemics in New York City, ed. David Rosner (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995), 95–114.
7 Albert et al., “Last Smallpox Epidemic,” 378. J. V. Irons et al., “Outbreak of Smallpox in the Lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas in 1949,” AJPH, 43 (1953): 25–29.
8 Charles L. Jackson, “State Laws on Compulsory Immunization in the United States,” Public Health Reports, 84 (1969), 787–95, esp. 788, 789. Judith Sealander, The Failed Century of the Child, esp. 330, 338, 352.
9 Albert et al., “Last Smallpox Epidemic,” 378. C. Henry Kempe, “The End of Routine Smallpox Vaccination in the United States,” Pediatrics, 49 (1972): 489–92.
10 D. A. Henderson, Smallpox: The Death of a Disease, esp. 26, 53. Erez Manela, “A Pox on Your Narrative: Writing Disease Control into Cold War History,” Diplomatic History, 34 (2010): 299–323.
11 Henderson, Smallpox, 14, 90–92. Manela, “Pox on Your Narrative,” 316.
12 Stanley Music quoted in Paul Greenough, “Intimidation, Coercion and Resistance in the Final Stages of the South Asian Smallpox Eradication Campaign,” Social Science & Medicine, 41 (1995): 635–36. Ibid., 643. See also Manela, “Pox on Your Narrative,” esp. 316–17.
13 Henderson, Smallpox, 239, 245, esp. 249. Edward A. Belongia and Allison L. Naleway, “Smallpox Vaccine: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly,” Clinical Medicine and Research, 1 (2003): 88.
14 Henderson, Smallpox, 269–86.
15 Ibid., 296–97. Jon Cohen and Martin Enserink, “Rough-and-Tumble Behind Bush’s Smallpox Policy,” Science, Dec. 20, 2002, 2312–16.
16 Massimo Calabresi, “Was Smallpox Overhyped?” Time, Jul. 26, 2004, 16. Madeline Drexler, “A Pox on America,” Nation, Apr. 28, 2003, 7–8. “Fear of Vaccine,” CQ Researcher, Jan. 13, 2006, 39. Jocelyn Kaiser, “Report Faults Smallpox Vaccination,” Science, Mar. 11, 2005, 1540. Donald G. McNeil, Jr., “National Programs to Vaccinate for Smallpox Come to a Halt,” NYT, June 19, 2003. Pamela Sankar et al., “Public Mistrust: The Unrecognized Risk of the CDC Smallpox Vaccination Program,” American Journal of Bioethics, 3 (2003): W22–W25. “U.S. Smallpox Vaccine Programme Stalls as Volunteers Balk,” Lancet, May 10, 2003, 1626. Pascale M. Wortley et al., “Healthcare Workers Who Elected Not to Receive Smallpox Vaccination,” American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 30 (2006): 258–65.
17 Kathleen S. Swendiman, “Mandatory Vaccinations: Precedent and Current Laws,” Congressional Research Service, CRS Report for Congress, Oct. 26, 2009. Sealander, Failed Century of the Child, 323–25.
18 “Refusing Kids’ Vaccine More Common Among Parents,” USA Today, May 3, 2010. See Mead v. Secretary of Health and Human Services, U.S. Court of Federal Claims, Office of Special Masters, E-Filed: March 12, 2010, esp. 164. http://www.uscfc.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/Campbell-Smith%20Mead%20Autism%20Decision.pdf, accessed July 8, 2010. See “Vaccine Court Finds No Link to Autism,” CNN.com, Mar. 12, 2010; Donald G. McNeil, Jr., “3 Rulings Find No Link to Vaccines and Autism,” NYT, Mar. 12, 2010. See also Gary L. Freed et al., “Parental Vaccine Safety Concerns in 2009,” Pediatrics, 125 (2010): 654–59; and Saad B. Omer et al., “Vaccine Refusal, Mandatory Immunization, and the Risks of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases,” NEJM, 360 (2009): 1981–88.
19 Philip J. Smith et al., “Children Who Have Received No Vaccines: Who Are They and Where Do They Live?” Pediatrics, 114 (2004): 187–95. For a revealing argument about contemporary antivaccination sentiment, see Dan Kahan, “Fixing the Communications Failure,” Nature, 463 (2010): 296–97.
Index
Abeel v. Clark
abolitionism
Adams, E. J.
Adams, John
Adams v. Burdge
Addams, Jane
administrative power
African Americans
Birmingham outbreak and
civil rights of
close living conditions of
compulsory vaccination and
epidemics of 1898–1903 and
equal protection clause and
health of
life expectancy of
Middlesboro outbreak and
as miners
mistrust of white medicine
occupations of
as physicians
scapegoating of
smallpox as disease of
vaccination rate
as vaccine refusers
Wertenbaker on
whites and. See race/racism
in Wilmington outbreak
Aguinaldo, Emilio
AlabamaSee also specific places
Alaska
alastrim
Alden, C. H.
Alexander Company
Alger, Cyrus
Alger, Russell A.
Allgeyer v. Louisiana
All Nations Block
American Association, Inc.
American Association, Ltd.
American Druggist and Pharmaceutical Record
American Medical Association
American Medicine
American Tobacco Company
Amerige, C. W.
Ames, Azel
Ames, John
Anderson, Scott
anti-imperialism
antimonopoly
antivaccinationism/antivaccinationists
abolitionism and
antimonopoly resentments and
in Boston
in California
in Cambridge, Massachusetts
children’s welfare and
Christian Scientists as
as civil disobedience
data used by
as dissenting political speech
effect on public opinion
in England
faith healers as
history of
Jacobson decision and
lack of coordination among
laws
lawsuits. See vaccination lawsuits
lawyers specializing in
legislation
literature of
medical licensing and
modern
Mormons and
opposition to
other causes espoused by
parents as
physicians and
as political act
post-Jacobson
progressiveness and, relationship between
prosecution for
radical libertarianism and
reasons for
significance of
smallpox solutions offered by
social class of
societies ofSee also specific societies
of southern whites
strategies of
Supreme Court case. See Jacobson v. Massachusetts in Sweden
tensions revealed by
in the United States See also Jacobson v. Massachusetts
vaccine quality issue and
vaccine refusers as distinct from
victories of
in Wilmington outbreak
working class and
Anti-Vaccination League of America
Anti-Vaccination News and Sanatorian
Anti-Vaccination Society of America
Arena
army
British
Continental
as force for public healthSee also Medical Department of the U.S. Army
French
of Northern Virginia
Prussian
Union
U.S. See Army, U.S.
Army, U.S.See also soldiers, U.S.
camps
exceptional humanity of
Medical Department. See Medical Department of the U.S. Army
misconduct
sanitary campaigns of. See military medicine/ sanitary campaigns
Third Separate Brigade
Army Medical School
army surgeons
disease causation, ideas about
duties of
education of
line officers as superior to
mustering of
Arthur, Alexander
Arthur, Chester A.
Atlanta Constitution
Atlantic City
Aud, A. Z.
Augustana Lutheran Church
autism
Babcock, J. W.
bacteria
Balangiga, Philippines
Ball, Charles Dudley
Ballard, Henry
Balmis, Francisco Xavier de
Baltimore Sun
Bancroft, Hugh
Bangladesh
Bank of Barings Brothers
Barbour, George M.
Barlow, James M.
Barnes, Albert C.
Barron v. Baltimore
Barton, Clara
Batangas, Philippines
Bavaria
Beasley, C. Oscar
Beatty, T. B.
Bedford, Massachusetts
Belgium
Bell, Austin
Bell, James Franklin
Bell County, Kentucky
Board of Health
Bell County Fiscal Court
Belt, J. H.
Benjamin, Dowling
beriberi
Billings, John Shaw
Bill of Rights
biologics
Biologics Control Act
Birmingham, AlabamaSee also Birmingham outbreak
Birmingham outbreak
African Americans and
compulsory vaccination
cost of
federal intervention in
Middlesboro outbreak compared to
Birmingham Quarantine Hospital
Blackstone, William
Blair, Samuel
Blauvelt, Alonzo
Blue, Frank D.
Bluffton, Indiana
Blunt, W. T.
boards of healthSee also specific boards
Boer War
Bohemia
Boone, Daniel
Booth, C. S.
Boston
antivaccinationism in
Board of Health
compulsory vaccination in
death rate from smallpox
last epidemic
municipal police force
pesthouse in
smallpox control in
smallpox outbreak in
vaccination rate
Boston City Hospital
Boston Globe, The
Boston Journal
Bourns, Frank S.
bovine vaccine
advantages of
in Italy
U.S. introduction
Boyd County, Kentucky
Boylston, Zabdiel
Bracken, Henry M.
Bradford, Harry
Bradley, Joseph
Bradley, W. O.
Brandeis, Louis D.
Branham, John William
Breen, Michael
Brewer, David J.
Bristol, Pennsylvania
Brooklyn
Brooklyn Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League
Brooklyn Eagle
Brower, Sarah
Brower, William
Brownlow, Walter P.
Bryan, Williams Jenning
bubonic plague
Buck, Carrie
Burchell, J. R.
Burke, Eliza
Bush, George W.
Bushey, S. G.
Butler, James
Butler, Kate
Caballo, Molino
Caballo, Mrs.
Caballo’s saloon
California
antivaccina
tionism in
compulsory vaccination in
Cambridge, Massachusetts
antivaccinationism in
Board of Health
compulsory vaccination in
death rate from smallpox
smallpox control in
smallpox outbreak in
vaccine refusers in
Cambridge Chronicle
Camden, New Jersey
Board of Education
Board of Health
children of
smallpox in
vaccine crisis. See Camden vaccine crisis
Camden Medical Society
Camden vaccine crisis
H. K. Mulford Company’s complicity in
investigation of
liability for
newspapers and
number vaccinated
parents’ response to
physicians’response to
postvaccination tetanus
school strike
Camp Alger
Campbell, F. T.
camps
army
of Cuban reconcentrados
Philippine reconcentration
work
Camp Thomas
Carty, Lillian
Caswell, Annie
Cate, Charles E.
Catholic Church
Cavallo, Frank
Census Bureau, U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Central Law Journal
Chapin, Charles V.
Charleston, South Carolina
Charlotte, North Carolina
Chicago
Chicago Tribune
children/schoolchildren
of Camden
compulsory vaccination of
death rate
immunization of
Jenner’s experiments on
in Middlesboro outbreak
in New York City outbreak
risks taken by
smallpox as disease of
state mandated immunization of
weak immune response of
children’s welfare
antivaccinationism and
China/Chinese immigrants
chiropractic
cholera
Christian Scientists
Churchill, Winston
civilization, measurement of
civil rights
African Americans and
Civil War, U.S.
deaths from disease
Reconstruction amendments
smallpox during
Clark, Walter McKenzie
Clarke, W. B.
Clay County, Kentucky
Cleveland
last epidemic
pesthouse in
smallpox outbreak
vaccine crisis in
Cleveland, Grover
Cleveland Journal of Medicine
Cleveland Medical Journal
Pox Page 53