Franco

by Enrique Moradiellos

  33 Juan F. García Santos, Léxico y política de la Segunda República (Salamanca: Universidad de Salamanca, 1980), pp. 99–102.

  34 Declaration of October 1933 reproduced in Valverde, El sistema político en las décadas de Franco, p. 13.

  35 The conclusions expressed by García Santos have been previously pointed out by Miguel Ángel Rebollo Torío: ‘Both Jefe and Caudillo are positive terms in the language of the right’, in El lenguaje de la derecha en la II República (Valencia: Fernando Torres, 1975), p. 83.

  36 Indalecio Prieto, Discursos fundamentales (Madrid: Turner, 1975), pp. 257–8.

  37 On the outbreak of the conflict and its military profile, apart from the classic works of Ramón Salas Larrazábal, Michael Alpert and others, there are the updated works by Gabriel Cardona, Historia militar de una guerra civil (Barcelona: Flor del Viento, 2006); Jorge Martínez Reverte, El arte de matar. Cómo se hizo la guerra civil española (Barcelona: RBA, 2009) and James Matthews, Reluctant Warriors: Republican Popular Army and Nationalist Army Conscripts in the Spanish Civil War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012).

  38 Boletín Oficial de la Junta de Defensa Nacional, 25 July 1936.

  39 A valid overview of the global vision of the insurgent military is in Juan Carlos Losada Malvárez, Ideología del Ejército Franquista, 1939–1959 (Madrid: Istmo, 1990) and Geoffrey Jensen, Irrational Triumph: Cultural Despair, Military Nationalism and the Ideological Origins of Franco’s Spain (Reno: University of Nevada Press, 2002). Its previous gestation among the troops in Africa is amply discussed in the works already mentioned by Gustau Nerín and Sebastian Balfour.

  40 Boletín de la Junta de Defensa Nacional, 30 July 1936. On the performance of these courts generally see Peter Anderson, The Francoist Military Trials: Terror and Complicity (London: Routledge, 2010).

  41 Boletín de la Junta de Defensa Nacional, 9 and 25 August 1936.

  42 Nerín, La guerra que vino de África, pp. 133–41. On this fruitful source see Juan José López Barranco, El Rif en armas. La narrativa española sobre la guerra de Marruecos, 1859–2005 (Madrid: Mare Nostrum, 2006).

  43 A revealing description of this first information policy of the rebels can be found in Paul Preston, We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War (London: Constable, 2008), ch. 4; Hugo García, The Truth about Spain: Mobilizing British Public Opinion, 1936–1939 (Eastbourne, Sussex Academic Press, 2010), ch. 2; and Antonio Cazorla, Franco. Biografía del mito (Madrid: Alianza, 2015), ch. 2. On Giménez Caballero, see Mario Martín Gijón, Los (anti)intelectuales de la derecha española (Barcelona: RBA, 2011), ch. 2.

  44 The words of Concha Langa, ‘Abc de Sevilla, el diario de mayor circulación de la España nacional’, in Antonio Checa, Carmen Espejo and María José Ruiz (eds), Abc de Sevilla. Un diario y una ciudad (Seville: Universidad de Sevilla, 2007), pp. 85–102.

  45 Examples of both attributions of caudillaje in the issue of 31 July (Queipo: ‘our brave Caudillo’) and 5 August 1936 (Sanjurjo: ‘The remains of the Caudillo were brought to Estoril’).

  46 Abc (Seville), 30 July 1936.

  47 Rafael Fernández de Castro Pedrera, Vidas de soldados ilustres de la Nueva España (Melilla: Gráficas Postal Exprés, 1937), p. 88. The author was the official chronicler of Melilla and he had known personally all of the Africanist commanders.

  48 So pronounced J. García Mercadal in his Ideario del Generalísimo, pp. 42 and 43, which at the height of March 1937 had already had two editions and had been ‘endorsed by censorship’.

  49 Manuel García-Pelayo, Los mitos políticos (Madrid: Alianza, 1981), p. 12.

  50 A classic selection of those authors and works is in Lewis A. Coser and Bernard Rosenberg, Sociological Theory: A Book of Readings (London: Collier Macmillan, 1976).

  51 Gallego, El Evangelio Fascista; Ismael Saz, España contra España. Los nacionalismos franquistas (Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2003). To these one could add, from perspectives more reduced but interesting, the earlier work of José Andrés-Gallego, ¿Fascismo o Estado Católico? Ideología, religión y censura en la España de Franco, 1937–1941 (Madrid: Encuentro, 1978).

  52 For a successful exhibition of this panoramic see Paul Preston, Las derechas españolas en el siglo XX (Madrid: Sistema, 1986); José Luis Rodríguez Jiménez, La extrema derecha española en el siglo XX (Madrid: Alianza, 1997); Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, El pensamiento político de la derecha española en el siglo XX (Madrid: Tecnos, 2005); Jorge Novella Suárez, El pensamiento reaccionario español, 1812–1975. Tradición y contrarrevolución (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 2007); and Eduardo González Calleja, Contrarrevolucionarios. La radicalización violenta de las derechas en la Segunda República (Madrid: Alianza, 2011).

  53 Javier Tusell, Historia de la democracia cristiana en España (Madrid: Cuadernos para el Diálogo, 1974), vol. 1. José R. Montero, La CEDA. El catolicismo social y político en la Segunda República (Madrid: Revista de Trabajo, 1977), 2 vols. Alfonso Álvarez Bolado, Para ganar la guerra, para ganar la paz. Iglesia y guerra civil (Madrid: Universidad Pontificia de Comillas, 1995). Giuliana Di Febo, Ritos de guerra y de victoria en la España franquista (Valencia: Universidad de Valencia, 2012). Feliciano Montero, La Acción Católica en la Segunda República (Alcalá: Universidad de Alcalá, 2008). José Manuel Cuenca Toribio, Nacionalismo, franquismo y nacional-catolicismo (Madrid: Actas, 2008). A brilliant local study of this movement is Mary Vincent, Catholicism in the Second Spanish Republic: Religion and Politics in Salamanca, 1930–1936 (Oxford: Clarendon, 1996).

  54 Raúl Morodo, Los orígenes ideológicos del Franquismo. Acción Española (Madrid: Alianza, 1985). Julio Gil Pecharromán, Conservadores subversivos. La derecha autoritaria Alfonsina, 1913–1936 (Madrid: Eudema, 1994). Pedro Carlos González Cuevas, Acción Española. Teología política y nacionalismo autoritario en España (Madrid: Tecnos, 1998).

  55 Martin Blinkhorn, Carlism and Crisis in Spain, 1931–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975). José Carlos Clemente, El carlismo en el novecientos español, 1876–1936 (Madrid: Huerga y Fierro, 1999). Jordi Canal, Banderas blancas, boinas rojas. Una historia política del carlismo, 1876–1939 (Madrid: Marcial Pons, 2006).

  56 Joan María Thòmas, Lo que fue la Falange (Barcelona: Plaza y Janés, 1999) and Los fascismos españoles (Barcelona: Planeta, 2011). Ferran Gallego and Francisco Morente (eds), Fascismo en España (Barcelona: El Viejo Topo, 2005). Ferran Gallego, Ramiro Ledesma Ramos y el fascismo español (Madrid: Síntesis, 2005). Ismael Saz, Fascismo y Franquismo (Valencia: Universidad de Valencia, 2004). Miguel Ángel Ruiz Carnicer (ed.), Falange. Las culturas políticas del fascismo en la España de Franco (Zaragoza: Institución Cultural Fernando el Católico, 2013). In English the basic text is that of Sheelagh Ellwood, Spanish Fascism in the Franco Era (London: Macmillan, 1987).

  57 The first two quotes are in Gallego, El Evangelio Fascista, pp. 125 and 137. For Pedro Sainz Rodríguez, see Julio Rodríguez Puértolas, Literatura fascista española (Madrid: Akal, 1987), p. 119.

  58 Words spoken on 12 January 1936, quoted in Joaquín Arrarás, Historia de la Segunda República (Madrid: Editora Nacional, 1968), vol. 4, p. 13.

  59 José Antonio Primo de Rivera, Textos de doctrina política (Madrid: FET de las JONS, 1966), p. 929. Declarations of Gil-Robles on 15 April 1936 reproduced in Manuel Álvarez Tardío, ‘La CEDA y la democracia republicana’, in Fernando del Rey (ed.), Palabras como puños. La intransigencia política en la Segunda República Española (Madrid: Tecnos, 2011), p. 416.

  60 Emilio Mola, Obras completas (Valladolid: Santarén, 1940), p. 1184. The decree of 25 September prohibiting political activities is in Boletín de la Junta de Defensa Nacional, 28 September 1936. The acceptance of this military demand for civil subordinate support is related well in José Luis Orella, La formación del Estado Nacional durante la guerra civil (Madrid: Actas, 2001).

  61 Gabriel Cardona, Historia militar de una guerra civil (Barcelona: Flor del Viento, 2006). Jorge Martínez Reverte, El arte de matar. Cómo se h
izo la guerra civil española (Barcelona: RBA, 2009). Michael Seidman, The Victorious Counterrevolution: The Nationalist Effort in the Spanish Civil War (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2011). James Matthews, Reluctant Warriors: Republican Popular Army and Nationalist Army Conscripts in the Spanish Civil War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), published in Spanish as Soldados a la fuerza (Madrid: Alianza, 2013).

  62 The words of Juan Carlos Losada in Ideología del Ejército Franquista, 1939–1959 (Madrid: Istmo, 1990), p. 25; Gabriel Cardona, El poder militar en el franquismo (Barcelona: Flor del Viento, 2008), p. 18; and Di Febo in Ritos de guerra y de victoria en la España Franquista, pp. 17, 31 and 56. The previous quotation from Menéndez y Pelayo (1882) formed part of his book Historia de los heterodoxos españoles and was widely disseminated in all formats. One of its great communicators in the 1930s was a prestigious general, Jorge Vigón, who published a synthesis of that work under the title of Historia de España (Madrid: Fax, 1934), quoted on p. 354.

  63 Matthews, Soldados a la fuerza, pp. 140 and 144.

  64 Thorough analyses of this process of charismatic construction are in Alberto Reig Tapia, Franco. El César superlativo (Madrid: Tecnos, 2005); Francisco Sevillano, Franco. Caudillo por la Gracia de Dios (Madrid, Alianza, 2010); Zira Box, España, año cero. La construcción simbólica del Franquismo (Madrid: Alianza, 2010); Laura Zenobi, La construcción del mito de Franco (Madrid: Cátedra, 2011); and Antonio Cazorla, Franco. Biografía del mito (Madrid, Alianza, 2015).

  65 Thus Paul Preston showed in his classic biography Franco, ch. 7.

  66 The words of the professor of law, Luis Jordana de Pozas, former collaborator of the Primo de Rivera dictatorship and an advocate of political Catholicism, in ‘El principio de unidad y sus consecuencias políticas y administrativas’, Revista de Estudios Políticos 3–4 (1941), pp. 621–40 and 33–53.

  67 Decree of 19 May 1939, reproduced in the newspaper Abc, 20 May 1939. An analysis of the parade and its preparations are in Di Febo, Ritos de guerra y de victoria, pp. 97–113. Miguel Platón, Hablan los militares. Testimonios para la historia (Barcelona: Planeta, 2001), pp. 12 and 15, remembered that the display was ‘one of the largest of its kind held in the world during this century’ and constituted ‘the apotheosis of the army which had taken for itself the designation of national’ and of its ‘young Generalissimo’.

  68 The statement of Gomá in his confidential reports to the Vatican on 24 October and 9 November 1936. María Luisa Rodríguez Aisa, El cardenal Gomá y la guerra de España (Madrid: CSIC, 1981), pp. 32 and 36. On the traumatic experience of the Church with secular modernity and the Republican era, see Frances Lannon, Privilege, Persecution and Prophecy: The Catholic Church in Spain, 1875–1975 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).

  69 The prayer and ceremony context is analysed in Di Febo, Ritos de guerra y de victoria, pp. 109–18 (prayer on p. 113). The canonical sources of this Christian concept of public authority were well exposed by the classical work of Walter Ullmann, A History of Political Thought: The Middle Ages (London: Pelican Books, 1965). Its contemporary adaptation in Spain can be seen in the aforementioned work by Jorge Novella.

  70 A recent analysis of that complex process is in Joan María Thòmas, El gran golpe. El ‘caso Hedilla’ o cómo Franco se quedó con la Falange (Barcelona: Debate, 2014).

  71 Dionisio Ridruejo, ‘La Falange y su Caudillo’, FE. Revista mensual de doctrina Nacional-Sindicalista 4–5 (1938), pp. 35–8.

  72 Ernesto Giménez Caballero, España y Franco (San Sebastián: Ediciones Los Combatientes, 1938), pp. 14–15 and 29.

  73 Speech before the Cortes and before the FET National Council, 17 March and 17 July 1943. Francisco Franco, Franco ha dicho. Recopilación de las más importantes declaraciones del Caudillo desde la iniciación del Alzamiento Nacional (Madrid: Editorial Carlos Jaime, 1947), pp. 53 and 57.

  74 Speech of 16 October 1945. Franco, Franco ha dicho, p. 109.

  75 Speech of 5 November 1957 in the Alcázar of Toledo to celebrate the golden anniversary of the XIV Infantry cohort. Reproduced in La Vanguardia Española (Barcelona), 6 November 1957. On the importance of the Alcázar in Francoist symbology, see Vicente Sánchez-Biosca, ‘Imágenes, relatos y mitos de un lugar de memoria: el Alcázar de Toledo’, Archivos de la Filmoteca 35 (2000), pp. 45–59.

  76 Franco, Pensamiento político de Franco (1975 edition), vol. 2, p. 863.

  77 Roger Eatwell, ‘Introduction: New Styles of Dictatorship and Leadership in Interwar Europe’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 7/2 (2006), pp. 127–37. See also Gerhard Besier and Katarzyna Stoklosa, European Dictatorships: A Comparative History of the Twentieth Century (Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013); and António Costa Pinto and Aristotle Kallis (eds), Rethinking Fascism and Dictatorship in Europe (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014).

  78 The context of the intellectual process is described in the classical analysis of Henry Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society: The Reorientation of Social Thought, 1890–1930 (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1979); Karl Dietrich Bracher, The Age of Ideologies: A History of Political Thought in the Twentieth Century (London: Methuen, 1984); George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the Two World Wars (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990); and Mark Mazower, Dark Continent: Europe’s Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane, 1998). A useful compendium of classic texts on ‘power and authority’ appears in Lewis A. Coser and Bernard Rosenberg (eds), Sociological Theory; A Book of Readings (London: Collier Macmillan, 1976), ch. 5.

  79 Words of Luciano Cavalli, Carisma. La qualitá straordinaria del leader (Rome: Laterza, 1995), pp. 6–7 and 83–4. In the same sense see Charles Lindholm, Charisma (Oxford: Blackwell, 1990); and Roger Eatwell, ‘The Concept and Theory of Charismatic Leadership’, Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 7/2 (2006), pp. 141–56.

  80 A Spanish version of the study by Weber, translated and annotated by Joaquín Abellán, was published under the title Sociología del poder. Los tipos de dominación (Madrid: Alianza, 2007), quotations from p. 75. It corresponds to ch. 3 of his great study Economy and Society (Oakland: University of California Press, 2013).

  81 Carl Schmitt, Dictatorship (Cambridge: Polity, 2013). The first German edition of the text is from 1921, the same year as Weber's formulation of the concept of ‘charismatic authority’. The concept of ‘personal power’ by Burdeau (reformulated after 1945) is exposed in Juan Ferrando Badía, ‘Las formas históricas de poder político y sus legitimidades’, Revista de Estudios Políticos 138 (1964), pp. 85–121.

  82 Words of Cavalli, Carisma, pp. 84–5.

  83 Ian Kershaw, The Hitler Myth: Image and Reality in the Third Reich (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). Luisa Passerini, Mussolini immaginario. Storia di una biografía, 1915–1939 (Bari: Laterza, 1991). Sarah Davis and James Harris (eds), Stalin: A New History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005). Richard Overy, Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia (London: Allen Lane, 2004).

  84 Reproduced in Emilio Gentile, El culto del Littorio. La sacralización de la política en la Italia fascista (Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI, 2007), pp. 219–20. See Piero Melograni, ‘The Cult of the Duce in Mussolini’s Italy’, Journal of Contemporary History 11 (1976), pp. 221–37; and Renzo de Felice and Luigi Goglia, Mussolini. Il Mito (Rome: Laterza, 1983).

  85 Franz Neumann, Behemoth. Pensamiento y acción en el nacional-socialismo (Mexico: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1983), pp. 108–9 and 121, published in English as Behemoth (New York: Octagon Press, 1983).

  86 Abc, 17 July 1938, p. 23. See Langa, ‘Abc de Sevilla, el diario de mayor circulación de la España nacional’.

  87 Speech before Cardinal Cicognani, 28 January 1964. Abc, 29 January 1964.

  88 Instructions reproduced in Zenobi, La construcción del mito de Franco, pp. 126–7. Marta Bizcarrondo, ‘Imágenes para un Salvador’, Bulletin d`histoire contemporaine de l’Espagne 24 (1996), pp. 229–44.

  89 Zenobi, La construcci
ón del mito de Franco, p. 141.

  90 Nicolás Sesma Landrín, Antología de la Revista de Estudios Políticos (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales, 2010). Benjamín Rivaya, Filosofía del Derecho y primer franquismo (Madrid: Centro de Estudios Políticos y Constitucionales, 1998). Matilde Eiroa San Francisco, ‘Palabra de Franco. Lenguaje político e ideología en los textos doctrinales’, in C. Navajas and D. Iturriaga (eds), Coetánea. Actas del III congreso internacional de historia de nuestro tiempo (Logroño: Universidad de la Rioja, 2012), pp. 71–88. Jaume Claret Miranda, El atroz desmoche. La destrucción de la Universidad española por el franquismo, 1936–1945 (Barcelona: Crítica, 2006). According to this author (pp. 352–3), the numbers of professors in 1935 dropped by perhaps half as a result of deaths, expulsions and departures into exile. In law faculties, the reduction affected 27 professors and 28 lecturers.

  91 Francisco Elías de Tejada, La figura del Caudillo. Contribución al derecho público nacionalsindicalista (Seville: Ateneo de Sevilla-Tipografía Andaluza, 1939).

  92 Juan Beneyto Pérez, El Nuevo Estado Español. El régimen nacional-sindicalista ante la tradición y los demás sistemas totalitarios (Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 1939), pp. 113, 115–16, 165 and 168. In the accurate view of Gallego, the work was ‘one of the most important texts of the time’ (El Evangelio Fascista, p. 595). The speech of Fernández Cuesta is in 18 de julio. Tres discursos (Madrid: Arriba, 1938), p. 37.

  93 Juan Beneyto and José M. Costa Serrano, El Partido. Estructura e historia del derecho público totalitario (Zaragoza: Hispania, 1939), p. 153.

  94 Luis Jordana de Pozas, ‘El principio de unidad y sus consecuencias políticas y administrativas’, Revista de Estudios Políticos 4 (1941), pp. 41–4.

  95 Alberto Reig Tapia, Franco. El césar superlativo, p. 191. Gallego, El Evangelio Fascista, pp. 553 and 617.

  96 Francisco Javier Conde, Contribución a la doctrina del Caudillaje (Madrid: Vicesecretaría de Educación Popular, 1942), pp. 17, 23, 30, 31 and 34. The previous articles were published by Arriba between 4 and 8 February 1942.