108.Strachan, First World War, pp. 248–61; Herwig, First World War, pp. 99–105, and Holmes, ‘Asking Schlieffen’, pp. 476–7.
109.E. Baier, letter to his parents, 8 September 1914. BA-MA Freiburg: PH10–II/52.
110.J. Krüger-Franke, ‘Über truppenärztliche Erfahrungen in der Schlacht’, Berliner klinische Wochenschrift 1 (4 January 1915), p. 7.
111.E. Baier, letter to his parents, 8 September 1914. BA-MA Freiburg: PH10–II/52.
112.G. A. Tunstall, Jr, ‘The Habsburg Command Conspiracy: The Austrian Falsification of Historiography on the Outbreak of World War I’, Austrian History Yearbook 27 (1996), pp. 181–98.
113.Conrad, Aus meiner Dienstzeit, iv, pp. 266 and 275.
114.See Clark, Sleepwalkers, pp. 102–5, and L. Sondhaus, Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf: Architect of the Apocalypse (Boston, MA, 2000), pp. 145–8.
115.Stone, ‘Mobilmachung’, pp. 79–80 and 86.
116.N. Stone, The Eastern Front, 1914–1917 (London and New York, 1975, 1998), p. 76.
117.Tunstall, ‘Habsburg Command Conspiracy’, pp. 193–5.
118.Stone, ‘Mobilmachung’, pp. 79–80 and 86.
119.Stone, Eastern Front, p. 84.
120.R. Jeřábek, Potiorek. General im Schatten von Sarajevo (Graz, Vienna and Cologne, 1991), pp. 107, 111–12, 119–20 and 130. Also Stone, Eastern Front, p. 79.
121.Stone, ‘Mobilmachung’, pp. 90–92.
122.T. Snyder, Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin (New York, 2010).
123.Jeřábek, Potiorek, pp. 9–15 and 27–32.
124.Ibid., pp. 115–16.
125.Ibid., pp. 113–14.
126.Ibid., pp. 104–5 and 108. Figures for Serbian strength from Lyon, ‘ “A Peasant Mob” ’, p. 501.
127.A. Fiedler, diary, 13 August 1914. KA Vienna: NL Fiedler, B/240, nr. 1.
128.Jeřábek, Potiorek, pp. 118–22.
129.A. Fiedler, diary, 14 August 1914. KA Vienna: NL Fiedler, B/240, nr. 1.
130.For information on Reiss and his investigation, see B. M. Scianna, ‘Reporting Atrocities: Archibald Reiss in Serbia, 1914–1918’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 25(4) (2012), pp. 597–607.
131.See Horne and Kramer, German Atrocities, pp. 200–204. For similar examples on the German side, see the testimony of Wehrmann August Schult, 24 January 1915, in AP Olsztyn: RP Allenstein: 179: fo. 465 and Auswärtiges Amt, Greueltaten russischer Truppen, esp. Anlagen 35, 39, 40, 41 and 74.
132.R. A. Reiss, Report upon the Atrocities Committed by the Austro-Hungarian Army during the First Invasion of Serbia Submitted to the Serbian Government (London, 1916), pp. 33, 42, 60, 103, 142 and 167.
133.See J. Gumz, The Resurrection and Collapse of Empire in Habsburg Serbia, 1914–1918 (Cambridge and New York, 2009), esp. pp. 54–8, and A. Holzer, Das Lächeln der Henker. Der unbekannte Krieg gegen die Zivilbevölkerung, 1914–1918 (Darmstadt, 2008), pp. 113–44.
134.A. Hausner, diary, 17 August 1914. KA Vienna: NL Hausner, B/217.
135.Reiss, Report upon the Atrocities, pp. 39–40, 45–51, 131–2 and 142. Gumz, Resurrection and Collapse, pp. 55–8, and Holzer, Lächeln, pp. 118–23.
136.This paragraph follows Gumz, Resurrection and Collapse, esp. pp. 29–30. For Hranilović and the intelligence report, see Holzer, Lächeln, p. 115.
137.J. R. Schneider, ‘Defeating Balkan Insurgency: The Austro-Hungarian Army in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1878–82’, The Journal of Strategic Studies 27(3) (September 2004), esp. pp. 541–5 and 547–8.
138.For these traits, see Kronenbitter, ‘Krieg im Frieden’, pp. 522–3.
139.O. Jászi, The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy (Chicago, IL, and London, 1929, 1966), p. 14.
140.Quoted in Gumz, Resurrection and Collapse, p. 39. Whether Habsburg Serbs did actually attack their army is unclear. When the Serb and Montenegrin forces invaded Bosnia at the end of August and in September, local civilian authorities reported that the Serb population did collaborate with their compatriots. The invaders killed and raped the Muslim population of the areas that they overran. When the Habsburg army retook the region, it executed more than 120 local Serbs. See report of the Landesregierung in Sarajevo, 18 October 1914, pp. 13–16. KA Vienna: KÜA (1914), Karton 15: Nr. 8389, and Z. A. B. Zeman, The Break-Up of the Habsburg Empire, 1914–1918: A Study in National and Social Revolution (London, New York and Toronto, 1961), p. 59.
141.Gumz, Resurrection and Collapse, pp. 41–2, and Holzer, Lächeln, p. 117.
142.‘Belagsziffern der Internierungs- und Unterbringungsorte am 18. September 1914’, KA Vienna: MSKM (1914) 69–11/1.
143.Quoted in Gumz, Resurrection and Collapse, p. 33. These regulations dated from 1912.
144.Holzer, Lächeln, pp. 78–9.
145.Reiss, Report upon the Atrocities, pp. 181–3.
146.A. Fiedler, diary, 7 August 1914. KA Vienna: NL Fiedler, B/240, nr. 1.
147.Lyon, ‘ “A Peasant Mob” ’, pp. 487–8 and 497–9.
148.Quoted in Jeřábek, Potiorek, p. 127.
149.A. Hausner, diary, 17 August 1914. KA Vienna: NL Hausner, B/217.
150.Krauß, Ursachen unserer Niederlage, pp. 148–9, fn. 1.
151.K.u.k. Ministerium des Äussern, Sammlung von Nachweisen für die Verletzungen des Völkerrechts durch die mit Österreich-Ungarn Krieg führenden Staaten. Abgeschlossen mit 31. Jänner 1915 (Vienna, 1915), pp. 168–9, 176 (docs. 123–5, 134–6). For similar stories circulating at the front, see Reiss, Report upon the Atrocities, pp. 174–5, and A. Hausner, diary, 17 August 1914. KA Vienna: NL Hausner, B/217.
152.Jeřábek, Potiorek, p. 132.
153.J. R. Schindler, ‘Disaster on the Drina: The Austro-Hungarian Army in Serbia, 1914’, War in History 9(2) (April 2002), pp. 171–4, and Jeřábek, Potiorek, pp. 118–32.
154.For a summary of the campaigns, if now a somewhat outdated analysis, see G. E. Rothenberg, ‘The Austro-Hungarian Campaign against Serbia in 1914’, The Journal of Military History 53(2) (April 1989), pp. 127–46.
155.A. Fiedler, diary, 26 August 1914. KA Vienna: NL Fiedler, B/240, nr. 1; A. Hausner, diary, 20 August 1914. KA Vienna: NL Hausner, B/217, and Schindler, ‘Disaster on the Drina’, pp. 175–7.
156.Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, p. 126.
157.‘Telephonischer chiffrierter Bericht der Statthalterei in Lemberg vom 1. August, 12 Uhr 45 früh’. KA Vienna: Zentralstellen – Kriegsüberwachungsamt (Aktenkartons) 1914: Karton 1: Nr. 252.
158.Bachmann, ‘Ein Herd der Feindschaft’, pp. 227–33. See also chs. 1 and 2.
159.Prezydyum c.k. Namiestnictwa, Lwów to wszystkich c.k. Starostów i . . . c.k. Dyrektorów Policyi we Lwowie i Krakowie, 8 August 1914. KA Vienna: Zentralstellen – Kriegsüberwachungsamt (Aktenkartons) 1914: Karton 1: Nr. 252.
160.Statthalterei-Präsidiums in Lemberg to Ministerium des Innern, minutes from a telephone call, 18 August 1914. KA Vienna: Zentralstellen – Kriegsüberwachungsamt (Aktenkartons) 1914: Karton 3: Nr. 1842.
161.See esp. Schmitz, ‘Verrat am Waffenbruder?’, pp. 385–407. More generally, Strachan, First World War, i, pp. 289–90; Herwig, First World War, p. 89.
162.Stone, Eastern Front, p. 80, and Rauchensteiner, Tod des Doppeladlers, pp. 126–7.
163.Stone, Eastern Front, pp. 85–9, and Strachan, First World War, i, pp. 350–54.
164.J. E. Romer, Pamiętniki (Warsaw, n.d.), p. 41. Cf. T. Ritter von Zeynek, Ein Offizier im Generalstabskorps erinnert sich, ed. P. Broucek (Vienna, Cologne and Weimar, 2009), p. 194.
165.K.u.k. Armeeoberkommando, ‘Erfahrungen as den bisherigen Kämpfen’, 28 September 1914. KA Vienna: NFA 43. Sch. D. 1914 (Op. Akt. Sept.–Okt.) (Karton 2180): Op. Nr. 2610 (in folder for 1 October 1914).
166.J. Gamst, diary, 29 August 1914. DTA, Emmendingen: 1719,2.
167.See Führ, K.u.k. Armeeoberkommando, p. 64. Conrad was unnerved when a Russian army pamphlet entitled ‘Galicia and the Present’ was captured which listed Russophile agents in Galicia. A translated copy of the pamphlet entitled ‘Da
s Galizien der Gegenwart’ is in KA Vienna: MKSM 1914: 69–8/9.
168.Drjur. Longin Cehelskzj, ‘Die Wahrheit über den Verrat in Ostgalizien’, p. 8, KA Vienna: MKSM (1915) 28–3/2.
169.See, for example, k.k. Statthalter von Galizien to Minister des Innern, 11 November 1915, p. 8. AVA Vienna: MdI Präsidiale (1916–17) 22/Galiz. Karton 2117: Nr. 4403.
170.K.u.k. Armeegruppenkmdo, GdI von Kövess to alle Kps, JTDionen, KTDionen, Lst. Brigaden u. Kps Trains der Armeegruppe, weiters an die exponierten Gend. Stabsoffz. von Lemberg, Stanislau u. Czernowitz, 19 August 1914. KA Vienna: NFA, 43. Sch. D. Karton 2179 (Op. Akten v. August 1914): doc. 80. Fourth Army also issued an order to its troops on 13 August 1914 to treat civilians harshly. See Stone, Eastern Front, pp. 82 and 312, endnote 12. Another similar order of 19 August 1914 to 3 Army Command and other units is cited in Holzer, Lächeln, p. 62.
171.K.u.k. Militärkommando in Krakau to k.k. Polizeidirektion Krakau, 11 September 1914. AN Cracow: DPKr 97: (1914) 3518/14: fo. 1867.
172.J. Słomka, From Serfdom to Self-Government: Memoirs of a Polish Village Mayor, 1842–1927, trans. W. J. Rose (London, 1941), pp. 221–6.
173.For composition, see M. Zgórniak, ‘Polacy w Armii Austro-Węgierskiej w czasie I Wojny Światowej’, Studia i Materiały do Historii Wojskowości 30 (1988), p. 237.
174.K.u.k. 1 Kpskmdo, Op. Nr. 408–18, 31 August 1914. KA Vienna: NFL 12 ID (1914 Op. Nr. v. 2.8–30.9) Karton 719. Also, for the belief in these stories across the army, see GdI von Dankl, diary, vol. 1, p. 105 (31 August 1914). KA Vienna: NL Dankl, B/3: 5/1.
175.K.u.k. 12 ITD Kmdo, Op. Nr. 70 to 23 Brig. Kmdo., 30 August 1914. KA Vienna: NFL 12 ID (1914 Op. Nr. v. 2.8–30.9) Karton 719.
176.K.u.k. 12 ITD Kmdo, Op. Nr. 70 to and from Jägerbaon 5, 3 September 1914. KA Vienna: NFL 12 ID (1914 Op. Nr. v. 2.8–30.9) Karton 719.
177.K.u.k. Traindivision No. 1 to k.u.k. 12 ITD on ‘Informationsperson’, 4 September 1914. KA Vienna: NFL 12 ID (1914 Op. Nr. v. 2.8–30.9) Karton 719.
178.P. Szlanta, ‘ “Najgorsze bestie to są Honwedy”. Ewolucja stosunku polskich mieszańców Galicji do monarchii habsburkiej podczas I wojny światowej’, in U. Jakubowska (ed.), Galicyjskie spotkania 2011 (n.p., 2011), p. 166. For the widespread perception of Hungarians as exceptionally brutal, see W. Mentzel, ‘Kriegsflüchtlinge in Cisleithanien im Ersten Weltkrieg’, unpublished PhD thesis, Vienna University (1997), p. 105. For their similar reputation in Serbia, see Reiss, Report upon the Atrocities, pp. 36–7, 40–41, 60 and 76.
179.P. A. Hanebrink, In Defense of Christian Hungary: Religion, Nationalism, and Antisemitism, 1890–1944 (Ithaca, NY, and London, 2006), pp. 28–46, and Okey, Habsburg Monarchy, pp. 325–30.
180.A. Hausner, diary, 22 October 1914. Cf. also entry for 20 October 1914. KA Vienna: NL Hausner, B/217.
181.See Taylor, ‘Intergroup Atrocities’, pp. 230–44.
182.For the use of German in particular in Galicia, see K. Baedeker, Austria-Hungary with Excursions to Cetinje, Belgrade, and Bucharest: Handbook for Travellers by Karl Baedeker, 11th edn (Leipzig, London and New York, 1911), p. 24.
183.Redlich, Schicksalsjahre Österreichs, i, p. 265 (entry for 2 Sept. 1914).
184.Dr. jur. Longin Cehelskzj, ‘Die Wahrheit über den Verrat in Ostgalizien’, p. 3. KA Vienna: MKSM (1915) 28–3/2.
185.Memorandum on alleged Russophiles in internment, 7 November 1914. KA Vienna: MKSM (1914) (Karton 1141) 69–11/5. Also, Mentzel, ‘Kriegsflüchtlinge’, pp. 86–91. For cases of whole Ruthenian communities being forcibly deported, see the army’s request to remove the 1,200 Ruthenes from Solotwina and Manasterczany in March 1915. K.u.k. Armeeoberkommando. Etappenoberkommando, ‘Evakuierung der Bevölkerung von Solotwina und Manasterczany wegen russophiler Gesinnung’, 12 March 1915. KA Vienna: AOK-QU.-Abteilung (Karton 1493), Nr. 31187.
186.Ritter von Semaka, 14. Sitzung der XXII. Session am 4. Juli 1917 and Ritter von Singalewycz, 21. Sitzung der XXII. Session am 15. Juli 1917 in Stenographische Protokolle über die Sitzungen des Hauses der Abgeordneten des österreichischen Reichsrates im Jahre 1917. XXII. Session. 1. (Eröffnungs-) bis 21. Sitzung. (S. 1 bis 1155) (4 vols., Vienna, 1917), i, pp. 652 and 1103. Also, C. Mick, Kriegserfahrungen in einer multiethnischen Stadt: Lemberg, 1914–1947 (Wiesbaden, 2010), p. 72.
187.See ch. 1. For Ruthenian parties in the Reichsrat, see L. Höbelt, ‘ “Well-Tempered Discontent”: Austrian Domestic Politics’, in M. Cornwall (ed.), The Last Years of Austria-Hungary (Exeter, 1990), p. 58.
188.Tăslăuanu, With the Austrian Army, p. 37. Also, Mentzel, ‘Kriegsflüchtlinge’, pp. 96–7.
189.‘Bericht des Legationsrates Baron Andrian über seine Informationsreise nach Ostgalizien’, 26 July 1915, p. 19. AVA Vienna: MdI Präsidiale (1914–15) 22/Galiz. Karton 2116: Nr. 19644. For other reports and for civilian authorities’ role in drawing up the internment lists, see Mentzel, ‘Kriegsflüchtlinge’, pp. 97 and 104.
190.Dr. jur. Longin Cehelskzj, ‘Die Wahrheit über den Verrat in Ostgalizien’, pp. 1–2 and 8–10. KA Vienna: MKSM (1915) 28–3/2. Cf. Speech by Abgeordneter Ritter von Singalewycz in Stenographische Protokolle, i (XXII. Session. 21. Sitzung), esp. pp. 1103–4.
191.Strachan, First World War, i, pp. 353–6.
192.K. Lauer, diary, 26 and 29 August 1914. KA Vienna: NL Lauer, B/366: Nr. 1.
193.A. Hausner, diary, 2 September 1914. KA Vienna: NL Hausner, B/217.
194.Mentzel, ‘Kriegsflüchtlinge’, pp. 92–102 and esp. 104.
195.K.u.k. Kriegsministerium, order on ‘Superarbitrierung von Offizieren des Armeestandes, des Ruhestandes und im Verhältnisse außer Dienst, behufs Einteilung bei den Feldformationen’, KA Vienna: KÜA 1914 (Aktenkartons): Karton 13: Nr. 7377.
196.Herwig, First World War, p. 94.
197.See K. Lauer, diary, 24 September 1914. KA Vienna: NL Lauer, B/366: Nr. 1. Also E. Dietrich, ‘Der andere Tod. Seuchen, Volkskrankheiten und Gesundheitswesen im Ersten Weltkrieg’, in K. Eisterer and R. Steininger (eds.), Tirol und der Erste Weltkrieg (Innsbruck, 1995), pp. 258–9. Some 78,279 cholera sufferers were treated in the army during the war, of whom 16,266 died. Nearly all the cases were contracted before the summer of 1915.
198.K.u.k. 4. Korpskommando to kgl. ung. 42. LITD, 9 September 1914. KA Vienna: NFA 43. Sch. D. 1914 (Op. Akt. v. Sept.–Okt.) (Karton 2180): Op. Nr. 36.
199.See K. Lauer, diary, 11 September 1914. KA Vienna: NL Lauer B/366: Nr. 1 and A. Hausner, diary, 20 October 1914. KA Vienna: NL Hausner, B/217. Also A. Krasicki, Dziennik z kampanii rosyjskiej 1914–1916 (Warsaw, 1988), p. 42 (diary entry for 29 August 1914).
200.ÖULK, i, pp. 337–8.
201.K.u.k. 2 Armeekommando, order, 6 September 1914. KA Vienna: NFA 43. Sch. D. 1914 (Op. Akt. v. Sept.–Okt.) (Karton 2180): Op. Nr. 447.
202.See K. Lauer, diary, 12 September 1914. KA Vienna: NL Lauer, B/366: Nr. 1.
203.Falkenhayn, quoted in H. Afflerbach, ‘Planning Total War? Falkenhayn and the Battle of Verdun, 1916’, in R. Chickering and S. Förster (eds.), Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914–1918 (Washington, DC, and Cambridge, 2000), p. 118. Also, more generally, Afflerbach, Falkenhayn, pp. 187–210. For the shell shortage, see Strachan, First World War, i, pp. 993–4.
204.Führ, K.u.k. Armeeoberkommando, pp. 64–71. For Poles’ reaction, see Szlanta, ‘ “Najgorsze bestie to są Honwedy” ’, pp. 168–9, and for the rise in anti-Semitism, see Mick, Kriegserfahrungen, pp. 146–53.
205.Herwig, First World War, pp. 94 and 120.
206.R. A. Prete, ‘French Military War Aims, 1914–1916’, The Historical Journal 28(4) (December 1985), pp. 889–90, and D. Stevenson, ‘French War Aims and the American Challenge, 1914–1918’, The Historical Journal 22(4) (December 1979), p. 878.
207.A. Fontaine, French Industry during the War (New Haven, CT, and London, 1926), pp. 270–71 and 405.
208.M. Augé-Laribé and P. Pinot, Agriculture and Food Supply in France during the War (New Haven, CT, and London, 1927), p. 55.
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br /> 209.Sanitätsbericht, iii, p. 140*.
4. THE WAR OF DEFENCE
1.Berliner Tageblatt und Handels-Zeitung. Morgen-Ausgabe 43, 387 (2 August 1914).
2.See W. J. Mommsen, ‘The Topos of Inevitable War in Germany in the Decade before 1914’, in V. R. Berghahn and M. Kitchen (eds.), Germany in the Age of Total War (London and Totowa, NJ, 1981), pp. 23–45. Also T. R. E. Paddock, Creating the Russian Peril: Education, the Public Sphere, and National Identity in Imperial Germany, 1890–1914 (Rochester, NY, 2010). For Russian belligerence in Galicia before the First World War, see Bachmann, ‘Herd der Feindschaft’, ch. 3.
3.Tsar to French ambassador, quoted in N. Golovin, ‘The Russian War Plan: II. The Execution of the Plan’, The Slavonic and East European Review 15(43) (July 1936), p. 74. For Russian war plans, see J. Snyder, The Ideology of the Offensive: Military Decision Making and the Disasters of 1914 (Ithaca, NY, and London, 1984), pp. 157–98, and Strachan, First World War, i, pp. 297–316.
4.See ‘Bericht des Oberpräsidenten der Provinz Ostpreußen an den Minister des Innern’, 20 March 1915, reproduced in Auswärtiges Amt, Greueltaten russischer Truppen gegen deutsche Zivilpersonen und deutsche Kriegsgefangene (Berlin, 1915), Anlage 1. A copy is held in BA-MA Freiburg: RM5/2514. For concern at the November attack, see Stellv. Generalkommando des V. Armeekorps to Erzbischof D. Likowski, 9 November 1914. AP Poznań: OA X 39. For the Galician campaign, see Stone, Eastern Front, ch. 4, and Strachan, First World War, i, pp. 347–67 and 371–3.
5.See M. von Hagen, War in a European Borderland: Occupations and Occupation Plans in Galicia and Ukraine, 1914–1918 (Seattle, WA, 2007), pp. 19–42.
6.See A. Funk, Geschichte der Stadt Allenstein von 1348 bis 1943 (Gelsenkirchen, 1955), pp. 216–34, and A. Kossert, Ostpreußen. Geschichte und Mythos (Munich, 2005), pp. 118–19.
7.P. Hirschberg, Die Russen in Allenstein. Die Besetzung und Befreiung der Stadt am 27., 28. und 29. August 1914, 2nd extended edn (Allenstein, 1918), pp. 3–4.
8.Much of the following account is based on a report by Polizeiinspektor Schroeder[?], 15 April 1915. AP Olsztyn: Akta Miasta Olsztyn 259/168: fos. 16–17.
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