by James Geary
107. Mirror neurons, disgust, and pain. Rizzolatti, G., Fogassi, L., and Gallese, V. “Mirror Neurons in the Mind.” Scientific American, November 2006, pp. 54–69.
108. Malfunctioning mirror neuron system and ASD. Dapretto, Mirella, et al. “Understanding Emotions in Others: Mirror Neuron Dysfunction in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders.” Nature Neuroscience 9, 2006, pp. 28–30.
109. The correlation between mirror system dysfunction, ASD, and theory of mind. Frith, Uta. “Mindblindness and the Brain in Autism.” Neuron 32, 2001, pp. 969–979.
110. “To mind-read . . .” Baron-Cohen, Simon. “The Biology of the Imagination.” Entelechy Journal 9, Summer/Fall 2007, http://www.entelechyjournal.com/simonbaroncohen.htm.
111. “A chance word or name . . .” Tammet, Daniel. Born on a Blue Day: A Memoir of Asperger’s and an Extraordinary Mind. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2007, p. 96.
112. “Complexity” and “fragile peace.” Ibid., p. 207.
113. Kellokült. Ibid., p. 218.
114. Pullo. Tammet, Daniel. Embracing the Wide Sky: A Tour Across the Horizons of the Mind. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2009, p. 222.
115. Devil’s advocate. Stuart-Hamilton, Ian. An Asperger Dictionary of Everyday Expressions. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley, 2007, p. 181.
116. Cold shoulder. Ibid., p. 98.
117. How to play Smoke. Gardner, John. On Moral Fiction. New York: Basic Books, 2000, p. 118.
118. “No one can achieve profound characterization . . .” Ibid., p. 119.
119. Personifications of Absolut and Stolichnaya vodkas and the five core elements of “brand personality.” Aaker, J. L. “Dimensions of Brand Personality.” Journal of Marketing Research 34, 3, 1997, p. 347.
120. Personifications of cars. Piller, Ingrid. “Extended Metaphor in Automobile Fan Discourse.” Poetics Today 20, 3, 1999, pp. 483–498.
121. Asking consumers about their buying intentions. Levav, Jonathan, and Fitzsimons, Gavan J. “When Questions Change Behavior: The Role of Ease of Representation.” Psychological Science 17, 3, 2006, pp. 207–213.
122. “Limit 12 per customer.” Chapman, Gretchen B., and Johnson, Eric J. “Incorporating the Irrelevant: Anchors in Judgments of Belief and Value.” In: Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. Gilovich, Thomas, Griffin, Dale, and Kahneman, Daniel, eds. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, p. 120.
123. Groups with the coolest, most alluring affective profiles. MacGregor, D. G., Slovic, P., Dreman, D., and Berry, M. “Imagery, Affect, and Financial Judgment.” The Journal of Psychology and Financial Markets 1, 2, 2000, p. 104–110.
124. “Representations of objects and events . . .” Finucane, M. L., Alhakami, A., Slovic, P., and Johnson, S. M. “The Affect Heuristic in Judgments of Risks and Benefits.” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 13, 2000, p. 3.
125. “Deep metaphors.” Zaltman, Gerald, and Zaltman, Lindsay. Marketing Metaphoria: What Deep Metaphors Reveal About the Minds of Consumers. Boston: Harvard Business Press, 2008, p. xv.
126. Presented with images with few or no recognizable features . . . The technical term for seeing the Virgin Mary in a grilled cheese sandwich and other feats of physiognomic perception is “pareidolia,” a word derived from the Greek para, meaning “beside,” and eidolon, meaning “image.”
127. “When we concentrate on an inner picture . . .” Jung, Carl Gustav. Jung on Active Imagination. Key Readings Selected and Introduced by Joan Chodorow. London: Routledge, 1997, p. 145.
128. Seven deep metaphors. Zaltman, Gerald, and Zaltman, Lindsay. Marketing Metaphoria: What Deep Metaphors Reveal about the Minds of Consumers, p. 17.
129. “Those people who are least aware of their unconscious side . . .” Jung, Carl Gustav. “The Transcendent Function.” In: Miller, Jeffrey C. The Transcendent Function: Jung’s Model of Psychological Growth through Dialogue with the Unconscious. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004, p. 159.
130. Life is a journey. The StrategyOne results can be found at http://www.pollster.com/blogs/life_metaphors.php.
131. “Deep metaphors are . . .” Zaltman, Gerald, and Zaltman, Lindsay. Marketing Metaphoria: What Deep Metaphors Reveal About the Minds of Consumers, p. xv.
132. Everything from chocolates to automobiles to beer . . . These examples come from “Visual Metaphor and Conventionality,” a talk given by Didier Hodiamont at the Eighth International Conference on Researching and Applying Metaphor, July 2010, Amsterdam.
133. One study even found that people are more likely to respond to symbols that have once been widely known . . . Schorn, Robert, Tappeiner, Gottfried, and Walde, Janette. “Analyzing ‘Spooky Action at a Distance’ Concerning Brand Logos.” Innovative Marketing 2, 1, 2006, pp. 45–60.
134. “Because they contain an essential truth . . .” Thompson, Philip, and Davenport, Peter. The Dictionary of Visual Language. London: Penguin, 1982, p. vii.
135. A ZMET study conducted for a major agricultural corporation. Olson, J., Waltersdorff, K., and Forr, J. “Incorporating Deep Customer Insights in the Innovation Process.” Available at http:// www.olsonzaltman.com/downloads/2008%20Insights%20in%20the%20Innovation%20Process.pdf.
136. The Senseo and Hourglass coffeemakers. These examples come from “Understanding Product Metaphors,” a talk given by Nazil Cila at the Eighth International Conference on Researching and Applying Metaphor, July 2010, Amsterdam.
137. Advertisements “provide a structure . . .” Williamson, Judith. Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising. London and New York: Marion Boyars, 1985, p. 12.
138. The objective correlative. Eliot, T. S. Selected Essays. London: Faber and Faber, 1972, p. 145.
139. “ ‘Objective correlatives’ end up by being . . .” Williamson, Judith. Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising, p. 37.
140. Children consumed 45 percent more snacks when exposed to food ads. Harris, J. L., Bargh, J. A., and Brownell, K. D. “Priming Effects of Television Food Advertising on Eating Behavior.” Health Psychology 28, 2009, pp. 404–413.
141. Exposure to the logos of major fast-food chains increased people’s feelings of impatience and reduced their willingness to save money. Zhong, Chen-Bo, and DeVoe, Sanford E. “You Are How You Eat: Fast Food and Impatience.” Psychological Science 21, 3, 2010, pp. 1–4.
142. “Poetry.” Marianne Moore’s poem is available at http://www.poemhunter.com/poem/poetry/.
143. Equating brightness with loudness and high-pitched sounds. Marks, Lawrence E., et al. “Perceiving Similarity and Comprehending Metaphor.” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 52, 1, 1987, pp. 1–100. See also: Cacciari, Cristina. “Crossing the Senses in Metaphorical Language.” In: The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr., ed., p. 429.
144. Even children as young as four . . . Marks, Lawrence E., et al. “Perceiving Similarity and Comprehending Metaphor,” pp. 32–33.
145. Synesthetic metaphors follow a remarkably consistent pattern. Shen, Yeshayahu, and Eisenamn, Ravid. “Heard Melodies Are Sweet, but Those Unheard Are Sweeter: Synaesthesia and Cognition.” Language and Literature 17, 2, 2008, pp. 101–121.
146. Some researchers suggest this movement from less to more immediate parallels the physiological development of the senses themselves. Williams, J. “Synaesthetic Adjectives: A Possible Law of Semantic Change.” Language 52, 2, 1976, pp. 461–478.
147. “Sweet silence” versus “silent sweetness” and studies of nineteenth-century English, French, and Hungarian verse and twentieth-century poetry in Hebrew. Cited in: Shen, Yeshayahu, and Cohen, Michal. “How Come Silence Is Sweet but Sweetness Is Not Silent: A Cognitive Account of Directionality in Poetic Synesthesia.” Language and Literature 7, 2, 1998, pp. 123–140.
148. “Love Is Like a Bottle of Gin.” I first heard about this Stephin Merritt song in a talk by Dedre Gentner.
149. “Wednesdays are always blue . . .” T
ammet, Daniel. Born on a Blue Day: A Memoir of Asperger’s and an Extraordinary Mind, p. 1.
150. “Five is a clap of thunder . . .” Ibid., p. 3.
151. Metaphor may have evolved from early synesthetic abilities. Ramachandran, Vilayanur S., and Hubbard, Edward M. “Neural Cross Wiring and Synesthesia.” Journal of Vision 1, 3, 2001, http://www.journalofvision.org/content/1/3/67.
152. “Can it be a coincidence . . .” Ramachandran, Vilayanur S., and Hubbard, Edward M. “Synesthesia: A Window into Perception, Thought, and Language.” Journal of Consciousness Studies 8, 12, 2001, p. 9.
153. The bouba-kiki effect. Ramachandran, Vilayanur S. “Broken Mirrors: A Theory of Autism.” Scientific American, November 2006, pp. 62–69.
154. “This result suggests . . .” Ibid., p. 69.
155. Even very young children associate visual and auditory stimuli. Winner, Ellen. The Point of Words: Children’s Understanding of Metaphor and Irony. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988, pp. 69–70. See also: Wagner, Sheldon, et al. “ ‘Metaphorical’ Mapping in Human Infants.” Child Development 52, 2, 1981, pp. 728–731.
156. Young macaque monkeys preferred a cloth surrogate mother (warmed by a 100-watt lightbulb). Harlow, Harry. “The Nature of Love.” American Psychologist 13, 1958, pp. 673–685.
157. Those whose list included the word “warm” formed far more positive impressions of the person than those whose list included the word “cold.” Asch, S. E. “Forming Impressions of Personality.” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 41, 1946, pp. 258–290.
158. “When we describe the workings of emotions, ideas, or trends of character . . .” Asch, S. E. “The Metaphor: A Psychological Inquiry.” In: Person Perception and Interpersonal Behavior. Taguiri, R., and Petrullo, L., eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1955, pp. 86–87.
159. Hot coffee–holders versus cold coffee–holders. Williams, Lawrence E., and Bargh, John A. “Experiencing Physical Warmth Promotes Interpersonal Warmth.” Science 322, 5901, 2008, pp. 606–607.
160. Social exclusion, reductions in room temperature, and a virtual game of “catch.” Zhong, Chen-Bo, and Leonardelli, Geoffrey J. “Cold and Lonely: Does Social Exclusion Literally Feel Cold?” Psychological Science 19, 9, 2008, pp. 838–842.
161. Conquest asks consumer panels to use online avatars . . . Penn, David. “Getting Animated About Emotion.” A talk delivered at the European Society for Opinion and Marketing Research Congress 2008, Montreal, September 22, 2008.
162. Clipboards and weighty subjects. Jostmann, Nils B., Lakens, Daniel, and Schubert, Thomas W. “Weight as an Embodiment of Importance.” Psychological Science 20, 9, 2009, pp. 1169–1174.
163. Similar studies have shown that people interviewing job applicants while holding a heavy rather than a light clipboard . . . Ackerman, Joshua M., Nocera, Christopher C., and Bargh, John A. “Incidental Haptic Sensations Influence Social Judgments and Decisions.” Science 328, 5986, 25 June, 2010, pp. 1712–1715.
164. The angular gyrus and metaphor. Ramachandran, Vilayanur S., and Hubbard, Edward M. “Synesthesia: A Window into Perception, Thought, and Language.” Journal of Consciousness Studies 8, 12, 2001, pp. 3–34.
165. “There lies, in our most basic apprehension of music . . .” Scruton, Roger. The Aesthetics of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 92.
166. Mathematical thought may be tethered to the body. Loetscher, T., et al. “Eye Position Predicts What Number You Have in Mind.” Current Biology 20, 6, 2010, pp. 264–265.
167. The synesthetic link between music and space. Marks, Lawrence E., et al. “Perceiving Similarity and Comprehending Metaphor.” Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 52, 1, 1987, p. 54.
168. Scaffolding. Williams, Lawrence E., Huang, Julie Y., and Bargh, John A. “The Scaffolded Mind: Higher Mental Processes Are Grounded in Early Experience of the Physical World.” European Journal of Social Psychology 39, 2009, pp. 1257–1267.
169. “If all abstract thought is metaphorical . . .” Pinker, Steven. The Stuff of Thought. London: Allen Lane, 2007, p. 242–243.
170. People recognize negative words faster in a low versus a high vertical position. Meier, Brian P., and Robinson, Michael D. “Why the Sunny Side Is Up: Associations Between Affect and Vertical Position.” Psychological Science 15, 2004, pp. 243–247.
171. The taller the vertical lines on a company’s organizational chart, the more powerful people judge that company’s executives to be. Giessner, Steven R., and Schubert, Thomas W. “High in the Hierarchy: How Vertical Location and Judgments of Leaders’ Power Are Interrelated.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 100, 2006, pp. 160–176.
172. People reporting symptoms of depression respond faster to objects in the lower portions of their fields of vision. Meier, Brian P., and Robinson, Michael D. “Does ‘Feeling Down’ Mean Seeing Down? Depressive Symptoms and Vertical Selective Attention.” Journal of Research in Personality 40, 2006, pp. 451–461.
173. Moving marbles from a lower to a higher position causes people to recall positive memories more quickly. Casasanto, Daniel, and Dijkstra, Katinka. “Motor Action and Emotional Memory.” Cognition 115, 2010, pp. 179–185.
174. Study participants evaluate positive words more quickly when they are presented in larger font sizes . . . Meier, Brian P., Robinson, Michael D., and Caven, Andrew J. “Why a Big Mac Is a Good Mac: Associations Between Affect and Size.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 30, 2008, pp. 46–55.
175. “Taste played as important a part in their imagery . . .” Stapledon, Olaf. Star Maker. London: Victor Gollancz, 2001, p. 29.
176. Common conceptual metaphors. Kovecses, Zoltan. Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 5.
177. “Basic conceptual metaphors . . .” Lakoff, George, and Turner, Mark. More than Cool Reason: A Field Guide to Poetic Metaphor. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989, p. 51.
178. The “Halle Berry neuron.” Quian Quiroga, R., et al. “Invariant Visual Representation by Single Neurons in the Human Brain.” Nature 435, 2005, pp. 1102–1107.
179. Experiments with monkeys show that certain neurons respond to correlations among objects. Cited in: Dehaene, Stanislas. Reading in the Brain: The Science of Evolution of a Human Invention. New York: Viking, 2009, p. 143.
180. “The ‘dead metaphor’ account . . .” Kovecses, Zoltan. Metaphor: A Practical Introduction, p. ix.
181. When we think about time, the regions devoted to motion and spatial relations are active as well. Pinker, Steven. The Stuff of Thought. London: Allen Lane, 2007, p. 238.
182. “Next Wednesday’s meeting has been moved forward two days.” Boroditsky, L., and Ramscar, M. “The Roles of Body and Mind in Abstract Thought.” Psychological Science 13, 2, 2002, pp. 185–188. See also: Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr., and Matlock, Teenie. “Metaphor, Imagination, and Simulation: Psycholinguistic Evidence.” In: The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr., ed., p. 168.
183. Students waiting in line at a café and people on a moving train. Boroditsky, L., and Ramscar, M. “The Roles of Body and Mind in Abstract Thought,” pp. 185–188.
184. People asked to plot points on a line relatively far apart. Williams, Lawrence E., and Bargh, J. A. “Experiencing Physical Warmth Promotes Interpersonal Warmth.” Science 322, 2008, pp. 606–607.
185. People seated in an upright position. Stepper, S., and Strack, F. “Proprioceptive Determinants of Emotional and Nonemotional Feelings.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64, 1993, pp. 211–220. Also cited in: Williams, Lawrence E., Huang, Julie Y., and Bargh, John A. “The Scaffolded Mind: Higher Mental Processes Are Grounded in Early Experience of the Physical World.” European Journal of Social Psychology 39, 2009, p. 1261.
186. People shown texts containing metaphors for speed . . . Described in “Iconicity in Metaphorical Storytelling,” a talk given by Marlene Johansson Falck at the Eighth Intern
ational Conference on Researching and Applying Metaphor, July 2010, Amsterdam.
187. Solomon Asch researched other, very different languages. Asch, S. E. “The Metaphor: A Psychological Inquiry.” In: Person Perception and Interpersonal Behavior. Taguiri, R., and Petrullo, L., eds. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1955, pp. 88–89.
188. Words like these “do not denote exclusively the ‘raw materials’ of experience.” Ibid., p. 93.
189. Participants contemplating the future even tended to lean forward while people recalling the past tended to lean backward. Miles, Lynden K., Nind, Louise K., and Macrae, C. Neil. “Moving through Time.” Psychological Science 21, 1, 2010, pp. 1–2.
190. Speakers of Aymara gesture behind themselves when talking about the future. Cienki, Alan, and Muller, Cornelia. “Metaphor, Gesture, and Thought.” In: The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr., ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 492.