46.“Fechner of CCC,” Time, February 6, 1939, p. 11.
47.Cohen, Nothing to Fear, p. 214.
48.“The Text of President Roosevelt’s Message to Congress Today on Unemployment,” New York Times, March 21, 1933.
49.Cohen, Nothing to Fear, pp. 216–17.
50.Ibid., pp. 217–18.
51.U.S. Congress, An Act for the Relief of Unemployment Through the Performance of Useful Public Work and for Other Purposes, Public Law 5, 73rd Congress, 1st Session, 1933.
52.FDR, Executive Order 6101, April 5, 1933.
53.FDR, “Executive Order 6101 Starting the Civilian Conservation Corps,” April 5, 1933. Online at American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=14609.
54.“Fechner Reported Resigning Because of Merging of CCC: Declines Comment but Admission Is Believed Implied by Remark Congress Hasn’t Acted on Consolidation Order,” Washington Post, May 3, 1939, p. 1.
55.John A. Salmond, The Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933–1942: A New Deal Case Study (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1967), chap. 2, http://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/ccc/salmond/chap2.htm.
56.“Quick Job Action Sought: President Asks Power to Begin Recruiting Idle in 2 Weeks,” New York Times, March 22, 1933, 1. See also Salmond, The Civilian Conservation Corps, p. 14.
57.Maher, Nature’s New Deal, p. 79.
58.Schlesinger, The Coming of the New Deal, p. 337.
59.“Robert Fechner, Head of CCC Dies,” New York Times, January 1, 1940, p. 29.
60.Egan, The Worst Hard Time, p. 271.
61.“An Emergency Conservation Work (CCC) Chart, Prepared by Roosevelt, 3 April 1933,” in Nixon, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Conservation, Vol. 1, p. 136.
62.Owen, Conservation Under F.D.R., p. 28.
63.David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 118.
64.“Uniform of Spruce Green to Be Provided for CCC,” New York Times, January 9, 1939, p. 1.
65.Galusha, Another Day, Another Dollar, p. 1.
66.Civilian Conservation Corps, Forests Protected by the CCC (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1941), p. 1. As Fechner describes it, “‘Three Horsemen’ ride through American forests spreading destruction—Fire, Insects, and Disease. All three are deadly enemies, for they destroy timber products, wildlife, recreational and scenic values, and the forest protecting our vital watersheds.”
67.Maher, Nature’s New Deal, p. 55.
68.“Sees No Rise in Puerto Rico CCC,” New York Times, March 5, 1939, p. 31.
69.Alfred E. Cornebise, The CCC Chronicles; Camp Newspapers of the Civilian Conservation Corps, 1933–1942 (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2004), p. 7.
70.Harvey J. Kaye, The Fight for the Four Freedoms (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2014), p. 47.
71.Maher, Nature’s New Deal, p. 81.
72.C. R. Hursh, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station (Asheville, NC), Civilian Conservation Corps (U.S.), “Measures for Stand Improvement in Southern Appalachian Forests,” Emergency Conservation Work, Forest Publication No. 1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1933), p. 3.
73.John A. Conners, Shenandoah National Park: An Interpretive Guide (Blacksburg, VA: McDonald and Woodland, 1988), p. 96.
74.Maher, Nature’s New Deal, p. 74.
75.Dennis E. Simmons, “Conservation, Cooperation, and Controversy: The Establishment of Shenandoah National Park, 1924–1936,” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 89 (October 1981), p. 401.
76.Cohen, The Tree Army, p. 153.
77.Ronald L. Heinemann, “Civilian Conservation Corps,” in Encyclopedia Virginia, http://encyclopediavirginia.org.
78.Cohen, The Tree Army, p. 153; and Virginia State Parks, “Civilian Conservation Corps Museum,” accessed August 21, 2014, http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/state-parks/ccc-museum.shtml.
79.Albert H. Good, Park Structures and Facilities (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1935, 1938); and Albert H. Good, Patterns from the Golden Age of Rustic Design: Park and Recreation Structures from the 1930s (Lanham, MD: Roberts Rinehart, 2003).
80.Dayton Duncan and Ken Burns, The National Parks: America’s Best Idea (New York: Knopf, Doubleday, 2009), p. 234.
81.Charles Battell Loomis, “With the Green Guard,” Liberty, April 29, 1934.
82.Jerry J. Frank, Making Rocky Mountain National Park (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013), p. 99.
83.Thomas W. Patton, “‘A Forest Camp Disgrace’: The Rebellion of Civilian Conservation Corps Workers at Preston, New York, July 7, 1933,” New York History (2001), pp. 231–58.
84.Cohen, The Tree Army, p. 152.
85.“66 CCC Camp Sites Listed in New York,” New York Times, March 31, 1934.
86.“18 Forest Camps for New York,” New York Times, May 10, 1933, p. 5.
87.Henry E. Clepper, “In Penn’s Woods,” American Forests (June 1935), p. 269.
88.Olen Cole, The African-American Experience in the Civilian Conservation Corps (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1999), p. 16.
89.Gifford Pinchot to FDR, March 21, 1933, FDRL.
90.Gifford Pinchot to Louis Howe and FDR, April 17, 1933, CCC Papers, FDRL.
91.Jonathan Mitchell, “Roosevelt’s Tree Army: I,” New Republic (May 29, 1935), p. 64.
92.Rutkow, American Canopy, p. 250.
93.Maher, Nature’s New Deal, p. 90.
94.Ray Condor interview by Beth Martin, September 29, 1989, Zion National Park Oral History Project.
95.“Camp Life Reader and Workbook,” Language Usage Series, nos. 1–4, Federal Security Agency, U.S. Office of Education, Washington, DC.
96.Floyd Fowler oral history interview, Zion National Park Oral History Project, CCC Reunion, September 27, 1989, Southern Utah University.
97.Stradling, The Nature of New York, p. 164.
98.Badger, FDR: The First Hundred Days, p. 56.
99.Galusha, Another Day, Another Dollar, pp. 43–44.
100.Federal Security Agency, Civilian Conservation Corps, The CCC at Work: A Story of 2,500,000 Young Men (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1941), p. 34.
101.“CCC: The Civilian Conservation Corps in Missouri, 1933–1942,” brochure, n.d., 3 pp.
102.FDR to Robert Fechner, September 27, 1935, in “African Americans in the CCC,” New Deal Network, http://newdeal.feri.org/aaccc/.
103.Cornebise, The CCC Chronicles, p. 5.
104.Ibid.
105.Happy Days, July 22, 1939.
CHAPTER 8: “HE DID NOT WAIT TO ASK QUESTIONS, BUT SIMPLY SAID THAT IT SHOULD BE DONE”
1.Richard West Sellars, “The National Park System and the Historic American Past: A Brief Overview and Reflection,” George Wright Forum, Vol. 24, no. 1 (2007), p. 11.
2.Conners, Shenandoah National Park, pp. 93–94.
3.Donald C. Swain, “The National Park Service and the New Deal, 1933–1940,” Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 41, no. 3 (August 1972), pp. 312–32.
4.Newton, Design on the Land, p. 538.
5.Horace Albright, Origins of the National Park Service Administration of Historic Sites (Philadelphia: Eastern National Park and Monuments Association, 1971), p. 19.
6.Ibid., pp. 19–22.
7.Harvey P. Benson, “The Skyline Drive: A Brief History of a Mountaintop Motorway,” Regional Review (February 1940), p. 28.
8.See “White House Statement Summarizing Executive Order 6166, June 10, 1933.” Online at American Presidency Project.
9.John T. Flynn, Country Squire in the White House (New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1940), p. 12.
10.Albright, Origins of the National Park Service Administration of Historic Sites, pp. 19–22.
11.Sellars, “The National Park System and the Historic American Past: A Brief Overview and Reflection.”
12.See Gerald W. Williams, “National Monuments and the Forest Service,” USDA Forest Service/National Park Service (2003).
/> 13.Historic Sites Act of 1935, 16 USC Sec. 461–467, http://www.cr.nps.gov/local-law/hsact35.htm.
14.Eleanor Roosevelt, “My Day,” April 20, 1945.
15.Phoebe Cutler, The Public Landscape of the New Deal (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 62.
16.Horace Albright, “Origins of National Park Service Administration of Historic Sites,” http://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/albright/origins.htm.
17.Albright, Origins of the National Park Service Administration of Historic Sites, pp. 19–22.
18.See Lary Dilsaver, ed., America’s National Park System: The Critical Documents (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 1994), pp. 116–18; Char Miller, Public Debates: A Century of Controversy (Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, 2012), p. 71.
19.Newton, Design on the Land, p. 539.
20.Albright, Origins of the National Park Service Administration of Historic Sites, p. 23.
21.See Donald C. Swain, “Harold Ickes, Horace Albright, and the Hundred Days: A Study in Conservation Administration,” Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 34, no. 4 (November 1965), pp. 455–65.
22.Harold L. Ickes, The Secret Diary, Vol. 2, The Inside Struggle, 1936–1939 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1954), p. 584.
23.“Frederic A. Delano,” Washington Evening Star, March 28, 1953.
24.Philip W. Warken, “A History of the National Resources Planning Board, 1933–1945,” PhD dissertation, Ohio State University, 1969, pp. 44–45.
25.Schlesinger, The Coming of the New Deal, p. 351.
26.Newton, Design on the Land, pp. 541–42.
27.“Show for Lake Placid,” New York Times, July 16, 1933.
28.FDR, “Radio Address from Two Medicine Chalet, Glacier National Park,” August 5, 1934. Online at American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=14733.
29.Elmo R. Richardson, “Federal Park Policy: The Escalante National Monument Controversy of 1935–1940,” Utah Historical Quarterly, Vol. 33 (Spring 1965), pp. 109–33.
30.“Gov. Dern Is Urged for Vice President,” New York Times, April 26, 1932, p. 10.
31.FDR, Campaign Address on Railroads, Salt Lake City, September 17–19, 1932.
32.Edwin G. Hill, In the Shadow of the Mountain: The Spirit of the CCC (Pullman: Washington State University Press, 1990), p. xvi.
33.Washington County Historical Society, “Zion National Park, Washington County, Utah.”
34.See Hal Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts: The American National Monuments (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989), p. 169.
35.Our National Parks: America’s Spectacular Wilderness Heritage (Pleasantville, NY: Reader’s Digest Association, 1985), pp. 70–73.
36.See Rothman, Preserving Different Pasts, p. 169.
37.Code of Federal Regulations: The President (Washington, DC: Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Service, General Services Administration, 1968), pp. 69–70.
38.16 U.S. Code § 346b, Consolidation of Zion National Park and Zion National Monument, https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/16/346b.
39.Richard White, “It’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A New History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), p. 473.
40.Thomas G. Alexander, The Rise of Multiple-Use Management in the Intermountain West: A History of Region 4 of the Forest Service (Washington, DC: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, 1988), p. 101.
41.Belden W. Lewis, “A CCC Guy’s Diary,” Zion National Park Archives, Springdale, UT. (Unpublished.)
42.Karl A. Larson, “Zion National Park—with Some Reminiscences Fifty Years Later,” Utah Historical Quarterly, Vol. 37 (1969), p. 408.
43.Tony Melessa interview by Janet Seegmiller, March 8, 2006, Markaguant Plateau Oral History Project, Sherratt Library, Southern Utah University, Cedar City.
44.Quince Alvey interview by Jeff Frank, September 29, 1989, Zion National Park Oral History Project.
45.Kathleen Dalton to Douglas Brinkley, November 1, 2013.
46.Ibid.
47.FDR, “White House Statement Summarizing Executive Order 6166,” June 10, 1933. Online at American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=14660.
48.Swain, Wilderness Defender, p. 23.
49.“Henry A. Wallace Is Dead at 77; Ex-Vice President, Plant Expert,” New York Times, November 19, 1965.
50.Henry Wallace quoted in Clayton R. Koppes, “Environmental Policy and American Liberalism: The Department of the Interior, 1933–1953,” Environmental Review, Vol. 7, no. 1 (Spring 1983), pp. 17–53.
51.Alter, The Defining Moment, pp. 292–93.
52.Hugh Bennett, Soil Conservation (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1939), p. 13.
53.Wellington Brink, Big Hugh: The Father of Soil Conservation (New York: Macmillan, 1951).
54.Hugh Bennett, Elements of Soil Conservation (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1947).
55.Egan, The Worst Hard Time, p. 134.
56.Owen, Conservation Under FDR.
57.J. Douglas Helms, “Hugh Hammond Bennett,” in Cevasco and Harmond, Modern American Environmentalists, pp. 29–35; also Eagan, The Worst Hard Time, p. 134.
58.Bennett, Soil Conservation, p. v.
59.J. Douglas Helms, “Hugh Hammond Bennett and the Creation of the Soil Erosion Service,” Historical Insights, Vol. 8 (September 2008), pp. 1–13.
60.Egan, The Worst Hard Time, p. 135.
61.Helms, “Hugh Hammond Bennett,” p. 32.
62.American Council of Learned Societies, “Hugh Hammond Bennett,” American National Biography, Vol. 2. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 582–83.
63.Arthur E. Morgan, “Tennessee Valley Becomes Laboratory for the Nation,” New York Times, March 25, 1934.
64.Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), p. 393.
65.See C. Herman Pritchet, The Tennessee Valley Authority: A Study in Public Administration (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1943).
66.“New Era of Power Revolutionizes Life in the Tennessee Valley,” New York Times, November 29, 1936.
67.Steven Solomon, Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization (New York: HarperCollins, 2010), p. 329.
68.“President Honors Norris as Liberal,” New York Times, September 5, 1944.
69.Amity Shlaes, The Forgotten Man (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), p. 186.
70.David P. Billington, Donald C. Jackson, and Martin V. Melosi, The History of Large Federal Dams: Planning, Design, and Construction in the Era of Big Dams (Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, 2005), p. 179.
71.Page News and Courier, August 15, 1933.
72.Cornebise, The CCC Chronicles, p. 105.
73.Ickes, quoted in Darwin Lambert, Administrative History of the National Parks, 1924–1976 (Luray, VA: NPS Mid-Atlantic Region and Shenandoah Natural History Association, 1979), p. 128.
74.William Green to FDR, September 18, 1933, FDRL.
75.FDR quoted in Gaddis Smith, “Roosevelt, the Sea, and International Security,” in Brinkley and Facey-Crowther, The Atlantic Charter, p. 35.
76.Alfred Runte, National Parks: The American Experience (Lanham, MD: Taylor, 2010), p. 191.
77.Quoted in Ren Davis and Helen Davis, Our Mark on This Land (Granville, OH: McDonald & Woodword, 2011), p. 257.
78.National Park Service, “The Civilian Conservation Corps at Platt National Park,” last modified May 9, 2014, http://www.nps.gov/chic/historyculture/ccc.htm. See also Department of the Interior, Platt National Park: Oklahoma (Washington, DC: National Park Service, c. 1930s), http://www.nps.gov/chic/historyculture/guidebook1930s.htm.
79.James W. Cornett, The Joshua Tree (Palm Springs, CA: Nature Trails, 1999), p. 13.
80.Ruby DeCorsaw Culver, “The Joshua Tree: Oldest Living Thing in the California Desert,” Western World (December 1929–January 1930), p. 26.
81.Minerva Hoyt to A. E. Dunaray, July 14, 1933, Joshua Tr
ee National Park Archives, Twentynine Palms, CA.
82.Minerva Hoyt to Conrad Wirth, July 8, 1933, Joshua Tree National Park Archives, Twentynine Palms, CA.
83.Bertha H. Fuller, “Everything Was Peaceful,” Desert (June 1955), p. 22.
84.Conner Sorensen, “‘Apostle of the Cacti’: The Society Matron as Environmental Activist,” in Doyce B. Nunis, Women in the Life of Southern California (Los Angeles: Historical Society of Southern California, 1996), p. 230.
85.John Steven McGroarty, “Minerva Hamilton Hoyt,” in William L. Blair, Pasadena Community Book (Pasadena, CA: Arthur H. Cawston, 1943), pp. 752–58.
86.Edwin Way Teale, “Making the Wild Scene,” New York Times, January 28, 1968.
87.Minerva Hoyt quoted in “Keepsake of Joshua Tree National Monument Trek,” October 3, 4, and 5, 1980, Joshua Tree National Park Archives, Twentynine Palms, CA.
88.“Mrs. Hoyt Now en Route to England,” April 27, 1929 [n.p.], Clippings File, Joshua Tree National Park Archives, Twentynine Palms, CA.
89.Sorensen, “‘Apostle of the Cacti,’” pp. 234–36.
90.“California Exhibit Offered by Mrs. Sherman Hoyt Made Great Impression on British,” [n.d./n.p.], Clippings File, Joshua Tree National Park Archives, Twentynine Palms, CA.
91.Minerva Hoyt to A. E. Dunaray, July 14, 1933, Joshua Tree National Park Archives, Twentynine Palms, CA.
92.Samuel A. King, A History of Joshua Tree National Monument (Washington, DC: National Park Service, 1954), http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/jotr/jotr_history.pdf.
93.Harold L. Ickes to Minerva Hoyt, November 14, 1933, Joshua Tree National Park Archives, Twentynine Palms, CA.
94.W. A. Simpson to Harold Ickes, November 20, 1933; Harold Ickes to W. A. Simpson, December 13, 1933. Both letters courtesy of Joshua Tree National Park Archives, Twentynine Palms, CA.
CHAPTER 9: “ROOSEVELT IS MY SHEPHERD”
1.R. Douglas Hurt, “Federal Land Reclamation in the Dust Bowl,” Great Plains Quarterly, Vol. 6 (Spring 1986), p. 95.
2.Marion Clawson, New Deal Planning: The National Resources Planning Board (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), pp. 109–11.
3.Marion Clawson, “New Deal Planning: The National Resources Planning Board,” Agricultural History, Vol. 57, no. 1 (January 1983), pp. 116–18.
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