With a similar contraption, we saw the transit of Venus cross the sun in 2004. These transits usually come in pairs, and the next is due on June 6, 2012. Partial eclipses are not particularly rare, though whether you can see one depends on where you are in the world. Here is a list of the more impressive total solar eclipses coming up in the next few years. Each date is followed by the latitude and longitude that will give the best view. For the U.S., the one in 2017 will be the easiest to see—especially in the southeast part of the country.
1. 08/01/2008 Latitude: 65.6N Longitude: 72.3E
2. 07/22/2009 Latitude: 24.2N Longitude: 144.1E
3. 07/11/2010 Latitude: 19.8S Longitude: 121.9W
4. 11/13/2012 Latitude: 39.9S Longitude: 161.3W
5. 03/20/2015 Latitude: 64.4N Longitude: 6.6W
6. 03/09/2016 Latitude: 10.1N Longitude: 148.8E
7. 08/21/2017 Latitude: 37.0N Longitude: 87.6W
8. 07/02/2019 Latitude: 17.4S Longitude: 109.0W
9. 12/14/2020 Latitude: 40.3S Longitude: 67.9W
In 2038, there will be seven solar and lunar eclipses. A total lunar eclipse is a strange and wonderful sight, as light is scattered by the earth’s atmosphere to turn the moon a dark red, as if it were made of copper.
Set up your pinhole projector and enjoy the sights.
Charting the Universe
THE ANCIENT GREEKS were the first recorded people to try to explain why natural events took place without reference to supernatural causes. Astronomy started to become a science and began its long journey from superstition to enlightened understanding. They were beginning to uncover the “rules” of the universe, but these often conflicted with the prevailing beliefs and the conflict between faith and science continues even today.
Thales was a Greek philosopher and explorer who lived in the 6th century BC. He traveled to Egypt to study geometry. On his return, he demonstrated a high level of mathematical skill, even predicting the eclipse of 585 BC. His legacy is the belief that natural events could have natural causes. It is true that he thought the world was flat and floated on water—but, on the other hand, he realized earthquakes could be explained as more than a bad-tempered Poseidon.
Aristotle (384–322 BC) was one of the most influential of all Greek philosophers. He was a student of Plato, and became the teacher of Alexander the Great in Macedonia. He constructed three experimental proofs to show that the earth was round. He was the first to classify plants and animals. He thought that the earth was at the center of the universe and that all the planets and stars were fixed in the heavens in a sphere around the earth. He believed earthquakes were caused by winds trapped beneath the earth.
Aristarchus flourished in the century after Aristotle and made a model to show that the sun was at the center of things and not the earth. His theories were more scientific, but history only briefly records his heliocentric ideas. However, no less a figure than Copernicus gives him credit in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, writing, “Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion.”
Ptolemy of Alexandria was another gifted Greek astronomer. In AD 150, he published an encyclopedia (the Almagest) of ancient science with details and workings of the movements of the planets, showing an intricate mathematical system of circles within circles that buttressed his arguments for an earth-centered universe surrounded by unchanging spheres. This “Ptolemaic system” was to rule the world of astronomy for 1,500 years.
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) was a Polish astronomer. Just before his death, he published his masterwork, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium—“On the Revolution of the Celestial Spheres,” which was to change humanity’s view of the cosmos. Copernicus claimed that the sun was at the center of the universe. This met with great hostility from the Christian Church, which had adopted the Ptolemaic geocentric (earth-centered) system.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) was a Danish astronomer who in 1572 saw a brilliant new star in Cassiopeia. This was a supernova—the explosion of a dying star, and in 1604 another supernova blazed forth in the sky. These events shattered a cornerstone of Ptolemaic thinking: that the outermost sphere was unchanging. The heavens had joined the Renaissance.
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was Tycho Brahe’s assistant and with his combined notes produced three laws of planetary motion. This enabled him to predict the positions of planets more effectively than Ptolemy.
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an Italian scientist who in 1609 took a telescope—then a new invention—and pointed it at the night sky. He discovered that the giant planet Jupiter had four moons clearly revolving around it in simple orbits, a miniature version of the Copernican system. He published his discoveries, and in 1616 was warned by the Church to change his views. In 1632 he published Dialogue Concerning the Two Great World Systems, ridiculing the Ptolemaic system. He was forced to recant and abandon his beliefs that the sun was at the center of things and lived out his days under house arrest.
The Catholic Church later absolved Galileo from any wrongdoing. In 1989, a spacecraft was launched to study Jupiter and its moons; it was called Galileo and those moons are still collectively known as the Galilean moons.
These names should be known to all.
Dog Tricks
TEACHING A DOG simple tricks helps the bond between you. Dogs enjoy pleasing their owners and a well-trained dog is a happy dog! The only difficulty is in making the dog understand what you want. Commands should be given in a firm, low voice. Don’t expect them to understand perfectly the first time. Be prepared to come back to the same commands again and again, leaving a few days between. Most dogs are perfectly willing to jump through hoops (literally) for their owners.
1. “Speak.”
This comes under the group of tricks from observed behavior. If a dog does something and a command word is uttered and a treat given every time, they will quickly associate the treat and the pat with the command word. Say “Speak!” when they bark and in a short time, they will bark on command. Saying “Are you sleepy?” when they yawn works in exactly the same way.
2. “Sit.”
Everyone is familiar with this one. It is important that a dog should know to pause at every curb rather than rush across. Sitting helps to mark the importance of roads. Repetition is the key here—even bright dogs like collies can take two years to become well trained. Do not expect overnight results with any of these. Press the dog’s hindquarters down firmly, while saying “Sit.” Then give a treat—a piece of biscuit, for example. It doesn’t have to be much. A pat on the head will probably do, but you’ll find training easier with some sort of small reward to hand out.
3. “Down.”
Always follows “Sit.” Point firmly at the floor in front of the dog’s head. As with teaching them to “speak,” you might try this when they are on their stomachs naturally. Otherwise, you can try placing them in the “down” position manually, then express delight and give them a treat. They should remain upright, like a sphinx.
4. “Play dead.”
Usually follows “Down.” “Dying” involves lying completely flat on their side. You may have to press your hand gently against the dog’s head to indicate what you want it to do. Dogs love this and though they lie still, their tails wag madly. Keep your voice very low and touch the tail, saying slowly, “Dead dogs don’t wag . . .” Hold it for two or three seconds, then get them up and give them a pat and a treat.
5. “Paw.”
This is one you have to demonstrate. Simply lift the dog’s paw in your hand and shake hands gently before giving them a treat. Follow with the command “Other paw” for them to swap over. It won’t be long before they offer paws on command. I had a terrier who took forever to get this, but he managed it in the end.
6. “Over.”
This is used when you want the dog to run—to cross a street swiftly is the most common use. Train the dog by holding their collar and raising your tone in excitement,
holding them back. When all is clear, say “Over!” loudly and let them run. They will probably not cross neatly the first few dozen times, so don’t train them near cars.
7. “Heel.”
Crucial when walking a dog on the lead. It is tiring and annoying to have a dog pull as it walks along. Curb the habit early with a sharp jerk of the lead and a very firm tone as you say the command word. Puppies are excitable and curious. They often take a long time to learn this. Be careful not to hurt them and do not worry about looking like a fool. Anyone who has ever had a puppy has walked along a street saying “Heel” over and over and over again without any clear effect. To state the obvious, the dog does not understand why you are calling out parts of your feet. You are setting up a link in their minds between the word and the action of being jerked back. It will probably take a good year for this to work, depending on how young the puppies are when you get them. Be patient. It’s good practice for controlling your temper when you have children later on. Seriously. Like a lot of things in life, early work bears fruit when it really matters.
8. “Stay.”
This is another important one to teach early. Most dog owners have been surprised by a situation where the dog is far away and suddenly there’s a car coming toward you. If you can tell the dog to “Stay” and have it remain still, a serious accident can be avoided. This is taught with the aid of a pocketful of treats and many afternoons. You have the dog sit and say “Stay!” in your deep command voice. You hold up your hand at the same time, showing the dog a flat palm. You take a step back. If the dog follows you, return it to the same spot and begin again. Begin with three steps and then give it a treat and a pat, making a big fuss of the dog. When they can remain still for three steps, try six, then a dozen and so on. You should be able to build up to quite long distances in only a short time. Dogs do like to be able to see you, however. If you turn a corner, almost all dogs will immediately move forward to find you again.
9. “Gently.”
This is usually said with the second syllable elongated. A dog must be taught not to snap at food, though their instincts tell them to grab things before another dog gets it. You must never tease a dog with food—they will learn to snap at it and someone will get hurt. Always present food firmly on a flat palm. If they lunge at it, say the word “Gently!” in a firm, low voice. They will hear the tone and hesitate.
10. Begging.
I’m not really sure if this is a trick or not. Small dogs do this almost automatically. If you hold a biscuit slightly out of reach of a terrier, he’ll probably sit back on his haunches rather than leap for it. Collies are almost all hopeless at begging and fall over when they try. If you do want to try teaching it, the same requirement of treats, patience, and common sense applies. Have the dog sit and hold the treat just out of reach. If you have taught them the command word “Gently . . . !” it could be used to stop them snapping at your fingers. Let them have the first treat just by stretching, then move the next a little higher so their front paws have to leave the ground. Repeat over months.
11. “Drop!”
This is a very important command. Puppies in particular are very playful, and as soon as you touch something they are holding, they will pull back and enjoy the game as you desperately try to save your shoes from destruction. It’s best to take them by the collar to prevent them from tugging too hard and say “Drop!” in a loud, fierce voice. Repetition, as with all of these, is crucial.
12. “Over! Over!”
Different families will have different command words, of course. This one is probably not that common. Our dogs are always taught to jump at hearing this. You may be out walking and need them to jump a low fence, for example, or jump up onto a table to be brushed. Begin with a higher surface and simply pat it firmly, saying “Over! Over!” to them in an excited voice. If this doesn’t work, do not pull them up by the collar. They could be frightened of being off the ground and that won’t help. If you can, lift them to the higher level and then make a huge fuss over them, giving a treat. Repeat pats and lifts until they are comfortable with the higher position.
This is quite fun to see. Like cats, dogs can really jump, but they aren’t taught to do it on command very often.
13.
Police dogs are taught to evacuate their bowels and bladder on command. It’s done by using the command word—make your own one up—at the time when the dog is going to the toilet, and then the usual routine of making a fuss and giving a treat. In all honesty, this is only useful when, say, a dog will spend most of the day inside an airport and must not pee on luggage. For pets, it isn’t worth it.
14. Jumping through your arms.
Not all dogs can do this—the terrier absolutely refused point-blank. The command “Over! Over!” is useful as the dog knows it is for jumping. Begin by making a circle on the floor with your arms and having the dog called through for a treat. You need two people for this. After a few successful repetitions, raise your hands from the floor, so the dog has to step up a little to pass through. They’re probably far too excited by then, so try it again the next day. Raise your hands higher and higher, then stand upright, holding your arms out in the largest circle you can make. Dogs the size of collies can do this, though some will thump you in the body or hit your hands as they go through. They improve with practice and it is a great trick to impress other dog owners.
15. Finally, attack commands.
There is no secret to having an attack word for a dog. Be aware, however, that unless it was absolutely justified, the dog is likely to be destroyed. Children accompanied by dogs are much less likely to be troubled by strangers, regardless of the breed of dog. Dogs are known to be aggressive and territorial, especially with strangers—men in particular. They do not need to be taught higher levels of aggression.
The opposite of this is what to do if you come into contact with an aggressive dog. First of all, it is a risk to put your hand out to pat any strange dog. If you must take the chance, let the dog smell your hands first, coming in slowly and low down so as not to startle them. If they show their teeth, move away. Mankind is the only animal on the planet who shows his teeth to smile. The rest of them are saying “Go away or I will attack.” The same applies for growling. It is never playful. Never growl back. That is what another dog would do and the aggression will increase dramatically. Most dogs have the courtesy to warn you. Take the warning and back away.
If the dog does attack, remain on your feet and protect your face. Don’t scream. Break eye contact if you can, as dogs see a direct gaze as aggressive. Dogs are almost never interested in serious damage. They simply want to remove you from the area. Do not run, however. Walk slowly away. Big dogs like German Shepherds will hit you hard in the chest or back to try to knock you down. On the ground is not a good place to be in a full attack.
If you do end up on the ground, curl up to protect your face and neck. Again, they will do a lot more barking than actual biting in almost every case. Remain as still as you can and don’t call for help or scream. The noise may excite them.
A well-trained dog will not be aggressive with other dogs or people, or at least they’ll bring the poodle back when you call them. They will guard your home, force you to remain active to walk them, play with you whenever you have the slightest interest, and adore you with complete trust in all weathers, on all days.
Wrapping a Package in Brown Paper and String
NOT A VERY “DANGEROUS” ACTIVITY, it’s true, but it is extremely satisfying to know how to do this. There are two main ways: one without sticky tape of any kind and a more ornate one that needs the ends held with tape. I think they both have a place when sending a present or something thoughtful to someone else—just to give them the old-fashioned pleasure of tearing it open. It is true that you could simply cocoon a package in tape, but there is a certain elegance in doing it without.
You will need brown paper and string, available from most post offices and all stationery stores.
&
nbsp; Place the item to be wrapped on the sheet and cut a piece to fit it. Leave as much as half the height again and three times the width. Be generous rather than stingy with the paper. If it really is too much, you can cut some off later, but you can never put it back on.
If you were using sticky tape, you’d use less paper, fold one sheet under the other and then tape the edge. Here, we are going to fold the edge down over itself in strips. This will create a “spine” of paper that is very useful for rigidity and finishing it off. It also looks quite good, if you are careful with the folds.
Take a little time getting the ends right. Fold in a middle piece on each side, so that you end up with a duck’s bill in brown paper, as in the picture. This is not the classic “folding triangles in on themselves” technique. It is better.
Fold that duck’s bill over itself into a neat point on both ends. You don’t need to tape it, just leave it loose. The folded spine will prove very useful to hold it all together while you tie the string.
Now for the string. Cut a good length—3 or 4 feet (90–120 cm). Once again, you can always shorten it. Begin on the side where the final knot or bow will go. Take the string around to the other side and then cross the two pieces as shown above, changing directions at ninety degrees. Take the two lines round the other ends of the parcel and back to the middle of where you started, for tying. It is helpful to have someone put their finger on the knot to stop it slipping.
One useful tip is to tie an extra knot before tying the final bow, linking the two lines together on top. This makes it more secure and is a good habit to get into.
The spine of folded paper is underneath. The package is neatly wrapped. Well done.
The Dangerous Book for Boys Page 20