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Notes
1.Preliminary and regular run. Pretests revealed that the procedure of reading words and administering shocks required some practice before it could be handled smoothly. Therefore, immediately preceding the regular run, the teacher was given a preliminary series of ten words to read to the learner. There were three neutral words in the practice series (i.e., words that the learner answered correctly), so that shocks were administered for seven of the words, with the maximum shock at 105 volts (moderate shock). Almost all subjects mastered the procedure by the time the preliminary run was over.
Subjects are then presented with a second list, and are told that the procedure is the same as for the first list; the experimenter adds, however:
When you get to the bottom of the list, repeat it over again, and conti
nue giving shocks, until the learner has learned all the pairs correctly.
The experimenter instructs the subject to:
Start from 15 volts and increase the shock level one step each time the learner gives a wrong answer.
2.No subject who reached the 30th shock level ever refused to continue using it.
3.David Mark Mantell, “The Potential for Violence in Germany,” Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 27, No. 4 (November 4, 1971), pp. 101–12.
4.Within the last decade the effects of physical proximity on behavior have come under critical examination. See, for example, Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (New York: Doubleday, 1966).
5.Recently, I have learned that other experimenters (Sheridan and King, 1972) have replicated the obedience experiments but with this difference: in place of a human victim, they used a genuine victim, a puppy, who actually received the electric shock and who yelped, howled, and ran when he was shocked. Men and women were used as subjects, and the authors found that the women were more compliant than the men. Indeed, they write: “Without exception, female S’s complied with instructions to shock the puppy all the way to the end of the scale.” See also Kilham and Mann, 1972.
6.This is borne out by examining the data on reported nervousness. At the conclusion of his performance, each subject indicated on a scale just how tense or nervous he was at the point of maximum tension. These data are available for twenty-one experimental conditions, including the present one, and obedient women report higher tension than any of the twenty groups of obedient males. This may be due to the fact that the women were more nervous than the men, or simply that they felt freer to report it. In any case, for those women who were obedient, the reported tension exceeded that of any of the twenty other conditions. However, this is not true of the defiant women. Their reports of nervousness fall out just about in the middle of the distribution for male defiant subjects.
7.See study by Hofling et al. on the failure of nurses to question doctors’ orders on drug overdoses. Charles K. Hofling, E. Brotzman, S. Dalrymple, N. Graves, C. Pierce, “An Experimental Study in Nurse-Physician Relationships,” The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, Vol. 143, No. 2 (1966), pp. 171–80.
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