Authority as Victim (Experiment 14), 94–95 (table), 99–104, 110
Automata, 126–127, 128, 129, 131, 132; see also Cybernetics
Autonomy, vs. agentic state, 133
Avoidance, 158
Batta, Bruno, 45–47
Baumrind, Diana, 193, 209, 212
Berkowitz, L., 167
Bettelheim, B., 158
Bierstedt, R., 211
Binding factors, 148
Brandt, Gretchen, 84–85
Braverman, Morris, 52–54
Breakoff points, in obedience experiment, 28, 29 (table), 32, 40, 57, 60, 61 (table)
Bridgeport, obedience experiment at, 68, 69, 70, 171 (table)
Brotzman, E., 207
Buffers, 156–157, 183
Bureaucracy, destructive, 121, 122
Buss, A. H., 167
Caine Mutiny, The (Wouk), 208–209
Calley, William, 184, 211
Cannon, W. B., 126
Change of Personnel (Experiment 6), 58–59, 60–61 (table), 171 (table)
Closeness of Authority, see Experiment 7
Cognitive field, denial and narrowing of, 38
Commands, 146
Conformity: distinguished from obedience, 113–115, 207; as imitation, 114; and voluntarism, 115
Conscience (superego), 127, 128, 129, 132, 146, 165, 209
Control condition, see Experiment 11
Control panel, diagram of, 28
Conversion, 161
Counteranthropomorphism, 8
Crawford, Thomas, quoted, 201
Cybernetics, 125–128, 131, 133; see also Automata
Dalrymple, S., 207
“Dangers of Obedience, The” (Laski), 189
Debriefing, 24, 191
Delacroix, Eugène, 113
Democracy, 179, 204
Denial, 158, 173–174
Dicks, H. V., 177; quoted, 177–178
Disobedience, 14, 208; and anxiety, 152; in children, 205; strain ended by, 157, 162–164; see also Agentic state; Authority; Hierarchy; Obedience; Obedience experiment
Dissent, 161
Dogs of Pavlov, The (Abse), 198
Dontz, Karen, 77–79
Double authority, see Two Authorities
Dr. Strangelove (film), 7
Ego ideal, 147; group ideal substituted for, 131
Eichmann, 5, 6, 11, 54, 178, 186
Eichmann in Jerusalem (Arendt), 5
Elms, Alan, 204, 213; quoted, 203–204
Embarrassment, and obedience, 151, 187, 209
Empathic cues, in obedience experiment, 36, 38
English, H. B., 208
Erikson, Milton, quoted, 201
Errera, Paul, 212
Ethics in research, problems of, 193–202
Etiquette, 149, 152
Etzioni, Amitai, quoted, 201
Experiment, obedience, see Obedience experiment
Experiment 1 (Remote-Feedback), 32, 35 (table), 36, 38, 39, 171 (table)
Experiment 2 (Voice-Feedback), 22–23, 34, 35 (table), 36, 57, 173; Braverman’s behavior in, 52–54; psychiatrists’ predictions of behavior in, 27, 30, 31; Rensaleer’s behavior in, 50–52; and subjects’ estimates of pain felt by victim, 171, 171 (table); Washington’s behavior in, 49–50
Experiment 3 (Proximity), 34, 35 (table), 36, 38, 39; subject’s behavior in, 47–49; and subjects’ estimates of pain felt by victim, 171 (table)
Experiment 4 (Touch-Proximity), 34, 35 (table), 36, 39, 188; Batta’s behavior in, 45–47; and subjects’ estimates of pain felt by victim, 171 (table)
Experiment 5 (New Base-Line Condition), 55–57, 59, 60–61 (table), Prozi’s behavior in, 73–77; and subjects’ estimates of pain felt by victim, 171 (table)
Experiment 6 (Change of Personnel), 58–59, 60–61 (table), 171 (table)
Experiment 7 (Closeness of Authority), 59–62, 60–61 (table), 159, 209; Gino’s behavior in, 86–88; and subjects’ estimates of pain felt by victim, 171 (table)
Experiment 8 (Women as Subjects), 60–61 (table), 62–63; Brandt’s behavior in, 84–85; Dontz’s behavior in, 77–79; Rosenblum’s behavior in, 79–84; and subjects’ estimates of pain felt by victim, 171 (table)
Experiment 9 (Victim’s Limited Contract), 60–61 (table), 63–66; subject’s behavior in, 65–66
Experiment 10 (Institutional Context), 60–61 (table), 66–70
Experiment 11 (Subject Free to Choose Shock Level), 60–61 (table), 70–72, 166
Experiment 12 (Learner Demands to Be Shocked), 90–92, 94–95 (table)
Experiment 13 (Ordinary Man Gives Orders), 93, 94–95 (table), 96–97
Experiment 13a (Subject as Bystander), 94–95 (table), 97–99
Experiment 14 (Authority as Victim), 94–95 (table), 99–104, 110
Experiment 15 (Two Authorities: Contradictory Commands), 94–95 (table), 105–107, 110, 111
Experiment 16 (Two Authorities: One as Victim), 94–95 (table), 107–110, 111
Experiment 17 (Two Peers Rebel), 116–121; behavior of confederates in, 117–119; and reactions of naïve subject to defiant peers, 118, 120–121; shocks administered in, 119; technique for, 116–118, 120–121
Experiment 18 (Peer Administers Shock), 119 (table), 121–122
Experimentation with Human Beings (Katz), 211
Explicitness, in obedience, 114–115
F-scale, 201
Family, as antecedent of obedience, 135–136
Fascism, 204
Feinberg, I., 63
Festinger, L., 208
Freud, Sigmund, 113, 131, 208
Gandhi, Mahatma, 113
Garfinkel, H., 208
Generalizing from the experiment, 174–178
Ghost in the Machine, The (Koestler), 208
Gino, Pasqual, 86–88
Glasser, R. J., 180
Goffman, Erving, 150, 209
Graves, N., 207
Greece, ancient, 124
Group effects, 113–122
Group formation, 39
Group ideal, substituted for ego ideal, 131
Group Psychology (Freud), 131, 209
Halberstam, David, 180
Hall, Edward T., 206
“Heart problem,” in obedience experiment, 55, 56, 57
Hidden Dimension, The (Hall), 206
Hierarchy: and obedience, 114, 123–125, 128–130, 131; survival value of, 123–125; see also Agentic state; Authority; Disobedience; Obedience experiment
Hilberg, R., 187
Hitler, Adolf, 130, 155, 176, 211; see also Nazism
Hobbes, Thomas, 2
Hofling, Charles K., 207
Holland, C. C., 210
Homans, G. C., 121
Homeostatic model, 126
Hoodlums, predatory, groups of, 121
Imitation, conformity as, 114
Indifference, zone of, 208
Individuals, patterns among, 201–203;
individuals confront authority, 44–54, 73–88
Informed Heart, The (Bettelheim), 158
Inhibition, passive, 40
Institutional Context (Experiment 10), 60–61 (table), 66–70
Interaction Laboratory, of Yale University, 16, 55
Internalization of social order, 138
International Journal of Psychiatry, 201
Jews, and Nazism, 2, 9, 158, 187, 211
Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 207
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 209, 210
Journal of Social Issues, 206, 210
Katz, Jay, 212
Kelman, Herbert, 201, 202, 212; quoted, 211
Kilham, W., 207, 210
King, R. C., 206
Koestler, Arthur, 209
Kohlberg, Lawrence, 205
Language, modification of, 187
Laski, Harold J., quoted, 189
Laughter, 52–54
Lawrence, L., 211
Lazarus, R., 193
Learner Demands to Be Shocked (Expe
riment 12), 90–92, 94–95 (table)
Legitimacy of authority, how communicated, 205
Lerner, N. J., 210
Lorenz, Konrad, 210
Lynch mob, 121
Mann, L., 207, 210
Mantell, D. M., 171, 206, 210
Marler, P., 123
Methods, general principles, 13f.; problems of, 169–178
Miller, Arthur G., 202, 212
Miller, N., 42
Modigliani, Andre, 209
Moral judgment, 6, 153, 155
My Lai massacre, 176, 183, 186, 211
Nazism, 2, 9, 52, 85, 158, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179 187; see also Hitler, Adolf
New Base-Line Condition, see Experiment 5
Nuremberg trials, 8, 176
Obedience, 14; and agentic state, see Agentic state; analysis of, 123–134; antecedent conditions of, 135–143; and anxiety, 152; and authority, perception of, 138–140; binding factors in, 7, 148–152; conformity distinguished from, 113–115, 207; and cybernetic viewpoint, 125–128, 131, 133; and embarrassment, 209; explicitness in, 114–115; family as antecedent of, 135–136; and hierarchy, 114, 123–125, 128–130, 131; ideological justification for, 142; institutional setting for, 137; and perception of authority, 138–140; process of, 135–152; and reward structure, 137–138; and strain, see Strain; and variability, 130–132; and Vietnam War, 180–186, 211, 212; and voluntarism, 115; see also Authority; Disobedience; Obedience experiment
Obedience experiment: and acquired behavior dispositions, 40; action as element of, 89, 90, 149; and behavior dispositions, acquired, 40; break-off points in, 28, 29 (table), 32, 40, 57, 60–61 (table); at Bridgeport, 68, 69, 70, 171 (table); criticisms of, 169–170, 193 ff., 196 ff.; empathic cues in, 36, 38; and experienced unity of act, 39; experimenter’s role in, 16, 21; feedback from experimenter in, 21; feedback from victim in, 22–23; in Germany, 171, 207; and group-formation, incipient, 39–40; “heart problem” in, 55, 56, 57; and incipient group-formation, 39–40; and Interaction Laboratory, 16; learning task in, 19–20, 22; measures in, for subject, 23–24; method of inquiry in, 13–26; obedience analysis applied to, 135–152; participants obtained for, 14–16, 170; position as element of, 89, 90; procedure in, 17–19; and psychiatrists’ predictions, 27, 30, 31; reciprocal fields in, 38–39; sample shock in, 20; and sequential nature of action, 149; shock generator used in, 20, 23, 27, 157, 159; shock instructions in, 20–21; and situational obligations, 149–152; special prods in, 21–22; status as element of, 89, 90; and strain, see Strain; subject’s role in, 17–19, 23–24; tension of subject in, 41–43; unexpected behavior in, 40–43; victim’s role in, see Victim in obedience experiment; see also Agentic state; Authority; Disobedience; Experiments 1–18, Hierarchy; Obedience
On Aggression (Lorenz), 210
Ordinary Man Gives Orders (Experiment 13), 93, 94–95 (table), 96–97
Orne, M. I., 210
Orwell, George, 11; quoted, 11–12
Pain, subjects’ estimate of, 171
Parevson, Rosetta, 210
Passive inhibition, 40
Patterns among individuals, 202–204
Peer Administers Shock (Experiment 18), 119 (table), 121–122
Permutations of roles, 89–112, 167
Pierce, C., 207
Plato, 2
Position, in obedience experiment, 89, 90
Predictions of behavior, 27–31, 207
Proximity, see Experiments 1–4
Prozi, Fred, 73–77
Psychiatrists’ predictions, of behavior in Voice-Feedback Experiment, 27, 30, 31
Reciprocal fields, in obedience experiment, 38–39
Remote-Feedback (Experiment 1), 32, 35 (table), 36, 38, 39, 171 (table)
Rensaleer, Jan, 50–52
Responsibility, 46, 50, 51, 76, 77, 85, 87, 134, 163, 187; loss of, 7–8, 145–147
Responsibility clock, 203
Reward structure, and obedience, 137–138
Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (Shirer), 2
Role permutations, 89–112, 167
Roles, 153
Rosenblum, Elinor, 79–84
Rosenhan, David, 172, 173, 210
Rosenthal, R., 170
Rosnow, R. L., 170
Scott, J. P., 40
Sequential nature of action, 149
Sheridan, C. L., 206
Shirer, William, 2
Shock generator, in obedience experiment, 20, 23, 27, 157, 159
Shock levels: in Experiments 1–4, 35 (table); in Experiments 5–11, 60–61 (table); in Experiments 12–16, 94–95 (table); in Experiments 17–18, 119 (table)
Simon, Herbert A., 208
Situational obligations, 149–152
Snow, C. P., 1; quoted, 2
Social order, internalization of, 138
Social Psychology and Social Relevance (Elms), 202, 204, 212
Social Psychology of Psychological Research (Miller, ed.), 202, 210, 212
Sociometry, 209
Stalin, Joseph, 155
Status, in obedience experiment, 89, 90
Stogdill, R. M., 208
Strain, 153–164; and avoidance, 158; buffers of, 156–157; and denial, 158–159; disobedience as means of ending, 157, 162–164; and dissent, 161–162; physical expressions of, 161; resolution of, 157–161; sources of, 155–156; and subterfuges, 159–160
Subject as Bystander (Experiment 13a), 94–95 (table), 97–99
Subject Free to Choose Shock Level (Experiment 11), 60–61 (table), 70–72, 166
Subjects: how recruited, 14; age and occupation, 16; representativeness of, 170
Subterfuges, 159
Superego (conscience), 127, 128, 129, 132, 146, 165, 209
Tables: on breakoff points, 29; on Experiments 1–4, 35; on Experiments 5–11, 60–61; on Experiments 12–16, 94–95; on Experiments 17–18, 119; on questionnaire in follow-up study of obedience research, 195; on responses to question on belief, 172; on responsibility by defiant and obedient subjects, 203; on subjects estimates of pain felt by victim, 171
Taylor, T., 180
Tinbergen, N., 123
Tocqueville, Alexis de, 207
Touch-Proximity, see Experiment 4
Trobrianders, 142
Two Authorities: Contradictory Commands (Experiment 15), 94–95 (table), 105–107, 110, 111
Two Authorities: One as Victim (Experiment 16), 94–95 (table), 107–110, 111
Two Peers Rebel, see Experiment 17
Variability, 130–132
Victim in obedience experiment, 16, 17; authority as, 94–95 (table), 99–105; closeness of, 32–43; devaluation of, 9; feedback from, 22–23, 56–57; as “learner,” 18, 19, 22; and limited contract, see Experiment 9; live puppy, 203–204; protests of, 22; subjects’ estimates of pain felt by, 171 (table), 171–172
Vietnam War, 180–186, 211, 212
Voice-Feedback, see Experiment 2
Voluntarism, 115
Wallace, Mike, 183
Washington, Jack, 49–50
Wiener, Norbert, 125
Wirz, Henry, 186, 212
Women as Subjects, see Experiment 8
Wouk, Herman, 208
Yale Interaction Laboratory, 16, 55
About the Author
STANLEY MILGRAM (1933–1984) received his PhD in psychology from Harvard University. He taught at Yale, where he conducted his famous Milgram Experiment on obedience to authority, and Harvard, where he performed his “Small World Experiment,” which yielded the concept of “six degrees of separation.” Milgram later served as Distinguished Professor at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. He received several honors and awards, including a Ford Foundation Fellowship, an American Association for the Advancement of Science Socio-Psychological Prize, and a Guggenheim Fellowship. Obedience to Authority is his best-known book.
Discover great authors, exclusive offers, and more at hc.com.
Credits
Cover design by Milan Bozic
Copyri
ght
The Mike Wallace interview in Chapter 15 is © 1969 by the New York Times Company. Reprinted by permission.
A hardcover edition of this book was published in 1974 by Harper & Row, Publishers.
OBEDIENCE TO AUTHORITY. Copyright © 1974 by Stanley Milgram. Foreword © 2009 by Philip Zimbardo. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the nonexclusive, nontransferable right to access and read the text of this e-book on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse-engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins e-books.
First Perennial Classics edition published 2004.
First Harper Perennial Modern Thought edition published 2009.
The Library of Congress has catalogued the previous edition as follows:
Milgram, Stanley
Obedience to authority : an experimental view / Stanley Milgram. p. cm. — (Perennial classic)
Originally published: New York : Harper & Row, 1974.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-06-073728-X
1. Authority. 2. Obedience. I. Title. II. Series.
HM 1251.M53 2004
202.3'6—dc22
2004051001
ISBN 978-0-06-176521-6 (pbk.)
EPub Edition July 2017 ISBN 978-0-06-280340-5
About the Publisher
Australia
HarperCollins Publishers Australia Pty. Ltd.
Level 13, 201 Elizabeth Street
Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia
www.harpercollins.com.au
Canada
HarperCollins Canada
2 Bloor Street East - 20th Floor
Toronto, ON M4W 1A8, Canada
www.harpercollins.ca
New Zealand
HarperCollins Publishers New Zealand
Unit D1, 63 Apollo Drive
Rosedale 0632
Auckland, New Zealand
www.harpercollins.co.nz
Obedience to Authority Page 23