by Tim Pestell
Most of the fairs and markets discussed here were places in which natives could exchange their surpluses. Scandinavia was, however, not a closed economy. Long before the Viking period it was a source of exotic luxuries, especially furs, that were exported to the Mediterranean and western Europe. In return, Scandinavians obtained fine metalwork, jewellery, glassware and other high quality goods that have been found in burials. It was in the eighth century that the dramatic development of commerce across the English Channel and North Sea led to the creation of emporia in Scandinavia and beyond, across the Baltic to Staraja Ladoga in North Russia (Clarke and Ambrosiani i99i). These were visited by merchants in the summer and, with the exception of Visby on Gotland, were not associated with traditional cult centres. They were alien institutions and were not self-sufficient. They depended for supplies of raw material, food, and goods for export on the complex network of fairs that had been long established. Later, in the eleventh century, the Scandinavians began to export bulkier produce, timber, skins and, most important of all, dried fish as food in the winter and spring for the rapidly expanding towns of England and neighbouring parts of the Continent (Sawyer and Sawyer 1993, 156–9). Some of these exports may have come directly from the estates of rulers and magnates, but some were certainly gathered through the network of exchanges that had existed for centuries.
CHAPTER 15
Manor and Market at Lake Tissø in the Sixth to Eleventh Centuries: The Danish ‘Productive’ Sites
Lars Jørgensen
Just a few decades ago the picture of Scandinavian settlement from the Iron Age and Viking Age appeared relatively unsubtle, the known settlements mainly comprising agrarian villages with only a few standing out from this pattern. However, the excavation of Danish settlement sites over the past twenty-five years, especially since the introduction of the metal-detector, is revealing a more complex society with a clear stratification in settlements. It now seems that we can divide Danish settlements from the sixth to eleventh century into seven main groups:
1.Aristocratic sites with an unusually high density of buildings and evidence for extensive resource consumption in the form of many metal finds. These include Lejre (Christensen 1991 and 1997), Gudme (Jørgensen 1994; Sørensen 1994a and 1994b), Tissø and Toftegård (Tornbjerg 1998).
2.Early towns/emporia from the eighth century and onwards (Hedeby and Ribe: Jensen 1991 and 1993).
3.Landing/trading places with trading and craft activities. A large site of this type is Sebbersund in North Jutland (Christensen and Johansen 1992; Birkedahl and Johansen 1993). Small sites are numerous along Roskilde Fjord on Zealand and along the south coast of Sweden (Ulriksen 1994 and 1998).
4.Specializedproduction sites (especially for textiles) like Næs (Møller-Hansen and Høier 2000) and Selsø on Zealand (Sørensen and Ulriksen 1996), and Bejsebakken in North Jutland (unpublished).
5.More ordinary settlements with a presumed agrarian basic economy, but with a clear element of craft activities (Jensen and Watt 1993). Examples are Stentinget in North Jutland (Nielsson 1994) and Boeslunde on Zealand (H. Nielsen 1997).
6.Ordinary farms and villages exclusively with crop and animal farming as the main occupation (Hvass 1993; Mikkelsen 1999).
7.Fortified sites with a defensive character (refuge forts) or with a definite garrison character (such as Trelleborg, Aggersborg and Fyrkat).
Among the seven settlement types there are great differences in the material culture, and types 1–5 can all be termed as ‘metal-rich’ or ‘productive’ sites. Aristocratic sites with a very large number of high-quality finds are in a class by themselves, while the decidedly primary producers, the agrarian settlements, are at the bottom of the scale in the quantity and quality of finds. Of crucial importance in the identification of this settlement hierarchy is the content of material culture in combination with settlement structure from individual sites. The finds testify to the occupants’ status, resource consumption, activities and economy. Since i980 many of the Danish settlement areas have been regularly searched with metal-detectors, and this has resulted in a large body of finds which, via local museums, has been registered at the National Museum of Denmark.
Because there has been no tradition for such widespread use of metal-detectors in Norway, Sweden and Germany, Denmark holds a prominent position in the collection, registration and partly the interpretation of finds from such ‘productive’ sites. Indeed, only within the last few years have detector surveys been carried out at a few Swedish and Norwegian sites, and then often with the aid of Danish detector users (for example at Uppakra in Scania and Kaupang in South Norway). Finally, and of importance, the Danish sites have been given a high priority in rescue excavations. The number of excavated ‘productive’ sites is therefore higher in Denmark than in the neighbouring countries.
The first generation of ‘productive’ sites
The great central site at Gudme, along with the related trading place at Lundeborg are among the earliest aristocratic trading and production centres in southern Scandinavia ( Jørgensen 1994; Sørensen 1994a and b; Thomsen 1994) (Fig. 15.1). The settlement at Gudme covered one sq. km. and in the period 200–600 consisted of up to fifty farms. Some 7,000 metal objects have been found in the large settlement area dating to the period 200–1100 and among the many finds are six gold hoards and five silver hoards from the fourth to sixth century period. A special feature of Gudme is that a large number of the farms belonged to craftsmen, on which goldsmiths and silversmiths worked and at which bronze casting was carried out. Elsewhere in the settlement, a presumed aristocratic residence of the fourth to fifth century has been demonstrated (Sorensen 1994b). The main building was an imposing hall of almost 500 sq. m., the largest so far found from this period in Scandinavia. Between the third and sixth centuries Gudme was divided into craftworking and elite areas, and while there was a decline from the close of the sixth century, importantly the trading and workshop activities continued up to and including the Viking Age. The picture from Gudme, showing a very long continuity of trading and production activities, can be seen at several other early centres such as Sorte Muld on Bornholm in the Baltic (Watt 1991), Boeslunde in Zealand (H. Nielsen 1997) and Uppakra in Scania (Härdh 2000).
FIGURE 15.1. The distribution of major ‘productive‘ sites in Denmark and southern Sweden. Sites mentioned in the text are numbered.
The second generation of ‘productive’ sites
In southern Scandinavia, something appears to have happened in the sixth/seventh century to the Gudme-type site. Finds testify to a rise in the number of what we call ‘metal-rich sites’ and at the same time the differentiation increases as the sites begin to show specialization. As an example, Stentinget in North Jutland was a relatively ordinary settlement consisting of farms, with clear traces of craft production in the period from the sixth century up to and including the eleventh century (Nielsson 1994). However, while excavations have shown that the farm units are relatively unexceptional, the number of metal objects is far higher than at ordinary agrarian sites, including many brooches, fine Carolingian belt mounts of gilded silver, weights, ingots of bronze and lead.
On the Zealand site at Boeslunde there is a fairly large complex of smaller settlement areas, more or less all of which have metalwork finds testifying to occupation between the sixth and eleventh centuries (H. Nielsen 1997). Finds include brooches, smelted lead, weights, silver fragments, fragments of scales, a lead model for ring brooches and patrix dies for stamping sheet gold figures. Previous excavations of the Boeslunde complex have demonstrated only ordinary farm units but other finds, in the form of rich Viking Age cavalry graves, show that an aristocracy had then settled in the area.
A quite different type of settlement consists of specialized production sites which have only been recognised within the past few years. As an example an extensive site has just been excavated near the city of Alborg, called Bejsebakken in North Jutland (unpublished). Although only a few large houses were found, there
were no fewer than 350 pit-houses, the finds reflecting the presence of many people in the period ad 500/600–1000. It is clear, however, that this was not an actual residential settlement. Instead, the finds – including many loom-weights and spindle-whorls from the pit-houses – suggest extensive textile production, an activity normally associated with those types of structure.
FIGURE 15.2. Plan of the specialized production site at Næs on Zealand (after Møller-Hansen and Høier 2000, redrawn).
A similar site investigated recently at Nss in Zealand is smaller but nevertheless very interesting (Møller-Hansen and Høier 2000) (Fig. 15.2). About twenty buildings have been found, four of them longhouses, dating to the period from the late seventh to early ninth century. In the same area seventy pit-houses of contemporary date were excavated, almost all containing loom weights and spindle whorls, showing that they probably functioned as weaving huts. The site has however yielded a new, exciting type of feature. In the lowest-lying areas of the site fifty-seven wickerwork wells were found, used primarily for retting flax (i.e. soaking it to loosen it from the woody tissue), in several of which were found bunches of flax stems. The retting of flax required frequent changes of water, and to facilitate this a i50m long channel had been laid out. By blocking this canal the wells could be flooded and the water changed. The manufacture of linen was, however, not the only type of production at the site although it clearly played a major role. In several wells antlers were also found, which had been soaked with a view to being further worked into, among other things, combs. The site at Nss also exhibits traces of a little metalworking and/or trade, in the form of weights and a scale pan.
The aristocratic sites of the sixth to eleventh century
Aristocratic sites make up the last group with trading and production activities. On Zealand there are Tissø, Lejre and Toftegård while in southern Sweden there is the new, unpublished, site of Jarrestad on the east coast of Scania and Sloinge on the west coast of Halland (Lundqvist 1997). Curiously, no sites of this type can be demonstrated in West Denmark.
Toftegård
The residential complex at Toftegård on Zealand was identified in i995, and since then c. 30,000 sq. m. have been excavated and about ninety buildings identified (Tornbjerg i998). The complex was established at the beginning of the seventh century and was abandoned in the tenth century. It can be divided into a magnate’s central residence covering c. 10,000 sq. m., with five large hall buildings (c. 10 X 37–40m) (Fig. 15.3) adjacent to which is an enclosed special area containing a sequence of three smaller houses. Outside the hall area a more scattered, ordinary farm complex was found, consisting of two to three contemporary farms with small farmhouses, outhouses and pit-houses. About 3,000 finds were recovered, including many gilded silver and bronze mountings and jewellery, in addition to coins, weights, bars of silver and bronze, moulds, riding equipment, imported jewellery, mountings and glass of Carolingian and Anglo-Saxon origin.
FIGURE 15.3. Plan of the Toftegård complex near Køge. In the southern part is the central manor area with five halls from the seventh to tenth centuries and many fireplace pits. In the eastern part of this area is a fenced-in special area with a small building. The few finds in this area show that it was kept clean, unlike the rest of the complex. The picture here recalls the contemporary manor complex at Tissø. North of the halls and fireplace pits is situated one of the more ordinary farms with minor main houses, economy buildings and pit houses (after Tornbjerg 1998, redrawn).
The distribution of finds at Toftegård is striking because all the high-status objects were concentrated in the hall area of the main residence, for instance all the gold-foil figures, Frankish drinking glasses, weapons and riding equipment. At Toftegård one can thus observe clear differences in status between the features and finds at the large residence, and the ordinary farm features of the site. Just as the internal hierarchy is clear at Toftegård, a similar distinction can be observed at the other two aristocratic sites, Tissø and Lejre. In contrast to the other two sites, workshop activities (bronze casting and forging) have been demonstrated in the Toftegård hall area, a difference which might indicate stratification at the aristocratic level.
Lejre
The excavated building complex in Lejre near Roskilde in Zealand must clearly be regarded as one of our largest manors (Christensen 1991 and 1997). The complex has not yet been fully excavated, but it is still possible to get some impression of its structure (Fig. 15.4). The farm complex appears to have covered an enclosed area of about 40,000 sq. m., and at present traces of about fifty houses have been excavated, which date between the seventh to tenth centuries. One of Denmark’s finest Viking Age silver hoards, including four silver bowls, was found in the mid nineteenth century in the area just west of the settlement.
The settlement extends over c. 200,000 sq. m., of which c. i5,000 sq. m. have been excavated, and can be divided up into two functional areas, one for workshops, the other residential. Among the houses are four large halls of 48 X 11.5m (Fig. 15.5), and four smaller ones of 42 X 6m. Approximately 4,000 smallfinds have been recovered, including high quality objects which were clearly reserved for the elite, such as gilt jewellery, casket fittings, coins, weights, bars of silver and bronze, moulds, riding equipment, imported jewellery, mountings and glass of Carolingian and Anglo-Saxon origin. To these prestige items can be added many tools and implements.
Excavations in the residential area have led to surprising results, since it has been possible to locate several large halls, and from the seventh century until the tenth entury the settlement remained at the same place. This presumed royal seat also had a successor from the late tenth/early eleventh century in the area immediately to the north (Fig. 15.4), trial trenches revealing a very large, fenced-in complex of c. 200 X 200m in this area. This area promises information about settlement in the important transitional phase, primarily the eleventh century, when Lejre changed its status from a heathen royal complex with great halls, burial mounds and ship settings, to a Medieval magnate’s seat.
FIGURE 15.4. The manor complex from the seventh to tenth centuries at Lejre with the residential area and workshop area to the east. North of this earlier residence an impressive complex from the eleventh century has been found, covering an area of about 40,000 square metres.
FIGURE 15.5. Plan of one of the great halls in Lejre. The floor area is c.500 sq. m., the monumental architecture of the hall an active signal of power and status (after Christensen 1997, redrawn).
Manor and market at Lake Tissø
The best elucidated of the magnates’ complexes is a new site on the west bank of Lake Tissø in West Zealand, situated some seven kilometres from the coast. Via the River Halleby A, it would have been possible to sail even fairly large ships from the sea into the lake. Several other waterways run into the lake and the settlement had a highly strategic position with much of the population in the West Zealand area being able to sail to Tissø. The settlement extended along the whole west bank of the lake over a distance of about one and a half kilometres and a width of 200–300m, covering an area of about 500,000 sq. m. (Fig. 15.6).
The site has long yielded fine archaeological finds. In the nineteenth century weapons and other objects were found in the lakebed off the settlement when the lake was lowered to counteract flooding of the low-lying areas and subsequent drainage of the former bank zone has regularly revealed tools, dress ornaments and especially weapons. Today we have some fifty objects from the lake itself – swords, axes and lances – the great majority of which are from the Viking Age. In this connection we should dwell a little on the name of the lake, Tissø, which actually means ‘Tir’ or ‘Tyr’s lake’. Tir/Tyr was one of the Viking war gods, and it is tempting to interpret these lake finds as offerings to the god. The objects found so far show that this votive tradition goes back at least to around 600, close to the time of the foundation of the settlement. However, the most spectacular find from the site was made in 1977, when a local farmer found a
tenth-century gold neck ring weighing i.8 kilos. The field in which the ring was found was investigated in an excavation in i996, demonstrating the presence of extensive workshop activities in the form of forging and bronze casting.
In 1979, the graves of two executed men were found at the crossing over the River Halleby A, which have been radiocarbon-dated to c. 1030–40 – a date very close to the end of the whole settlement. In the same excavation, remains were found of a fifty metre long wooden bridge over Halleby A, also datable to the Viking Age.