13. Aurel Stein, Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan: Personal Narrative of a Journey of Archaeological and Geographical Exploration in Chinese Turkestan (London: T. F. Unwin, 1903; repr., Rye Brook, NY: Elibron Classics, 2005), 202.
14. Madhuvanti Ghose, “Terracottas of Yotkan,” in Whitfield and Ursula Sims-Williams, Silk Road, 139–41.
15. Burrow, Kharoṣṭhī Documents, no. 661; in Stein’s numbering system, E.vi.ii.1. Stein, Serindia, 1:276. For a photograph and succinct discussion, see Ursula Sims-Williams, “Khotan in the Third to Fourth Centuries,” in Whitfield and Ursula Sims-Williams, Silk Road, 138. See also Thomas Burrow, “The Dialectical Position of the Niya Prakrit,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 8, no. 2–3 (1936): 419–35, esp. 430–35. The document may be a copy of an earlier document: Peter S. Noble, “A Kharoṣṭhī Inscription from Endere,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 6, no. 2 (1931): 445–55.
16. Skjærvø, Catalogue, xxxviii–xl.
17. Ursula Sims-Williams, “Hoernle, Augustus Frederic Rudolf,” Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition, December 15, 2004, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/hoernle-augustus-frederic-rudolf.
18. A. F. Rudolf Hoernle, “A Report on the British Collection of Antiquities from Central Asia, Part 1,” Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal 70, no. 1 (1898): 32–33; Ronald E. Emmerick, A Guide to the Literature of Khotan, 2d ed. (Tokyo: International Institute for Buddhist Studies, 1992), 6n19.
19. Skjærvø, Catalogue, lxx–lxxi.
20. R. E. Emmerick, ed. and trans., The Book of Zambasta: A Khotanese Poem on Buddhism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), order to Ysarkula (163), author’s note (9), women’s cunning arts (283), closing of chapter on women (285), palace of the gods (19).
21. Dao Shi, Fayuan zhulin, a Buddhist encyclopedia compiled in 668, contains a section on lay women. Taishō shinshū Daizōkyō, vol. 53, text 2122, 443c–447a. Koichi Shinohara, personal communication, June 25, 2010.
22. H. W. Bailey, “Khotanese Saka Literature,” in The Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 3, The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, ed. Ehsan Yarshater, part 2 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 1234–35.
23. Skjærvø, Catalogue, lxxiii; Emmerick, Guide, 4–5; Emmerick, Book of Zambasta, xiv–xix.
24. Mauro Maggi, “The Manuscript T III S 16: Its Importance for the History of Khotanese Literature,” in Turfan Revisited: The First Century of Research in the Arts and Cultures of the Silk Road, ed. Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst et al. (Berlin: Reimer Verlag, 2004), 184–90, 547; dating of earliest manuscript on 184.
25. The best account of this confusing period in English is Kumamoto, “Khotan.”
26. Hedin, My Life As an Explorer, 188. In his first publications, Hedin referred to the site as “the ancient city Taklamakan”; later he used the name Dandan Uiliq. Stein, Ancient Khotan, 1:236.
27. Stein, Ancient Khotan, 1:240.
28. Stein, Ancient Khotan, 1:241.
29. Christoph Baumer, Southern Silk Road: In the Footsteps of Sir Aurel Stein and Sven Hedin (Bangkok: Orchid Books, 2000), 76–90.
30. Rong Xinjiang and Wen Xin, “Newly Discovered Chinese-Khotanese Bilingual Tallies,” Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 3 (2008): 99–111, 209–15. The Chinese version of this article appeared in Dunhuang Tulufan Yanjiu 11 (2008): 45–69, in an issue devoted to Khotanese studies.
31. Rong and Wen, “Bilingual Tallies,” 100, tally no. 2.
32. Yoshida Yutaka gives the most up-to-date translations for the Chinese and Khotanese names for grain grown in Khotan: “On the Taxation System of Pre-Islamic Khotan,” Acta Asiatica 94 (2008): 95–126, esp. 118. This is the shorter English version of Yoshida’s important Japanese book Kōtan shutsudo 8–9 seiki no Kōtango sezoku monjo ni kansuru oboegaki [Notes on the Khotanese secular documents of the eighth to ninth centuries unearthed from Khotan] (Kobe, Japan: Kobe City University of Foreign Studies, Research Publications, 2006).
33. Yoshida, “On the Taxation System,” 104n19.
34. P. Oktor Skjærvø, “Legal Documents Concerning Ownership and Sale from Eighth Century Khotan,” manuscript of a forthcoming article. For the dating of these texts, see Prods Oktor Skjærvø, “The End of Eighth-Century Khotan in its Texts,” Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 3 (2008): 119–38, particularly 129–31. For a useful chart summarizing these texts, see table 44, “Contracts,” in Helen Wang, Money on the Silk Road, 100.
35. Or. 9268A; translated in Skjærvø, “Legal Documents,” 61, 63.
36. Or. 9268B; translated in Skjærvø, “Legal Documents,” 65–66.
37. Helen Wang, Money on the Silk Road, 95–106, esp. table 46, “Payments Made Part in Coin Part in Textiles,” 101. Yoshida thinks few coins were circulating in the 770s and 780s, the time of Archives no. 1 and no. 2: “On the Taxation System,” 117n43.
38. Hoernle, “Report on the British Collection,” 16; Helen Wang, Money on the Silk Road, 103.
39. The other archive at Dandan Uiliq is Archive no. 3, dating to 798, with several documents signed by an official named Sudārrjām whose rank was tsĪṣĪ spāta (a higher position than simply a spātā), who signed documents with the Chinese character fu (literally “copy”) serving as his signature. Yoshida, “On the Taxation System,” 97–100.
40. The chronology of this period has still not been definitively established. See Yoshida Yutaka, “The Karabalgasun Inscription and the Khotanese documents,” in Literarische Stoffe und ihre Gestaltung in mitteliranischer Zeit, ed. Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst, Christiane Reck, and Dieter Weber (Wiesbaden, Germany: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 2009), 349–62, chronological chart on 361; Skjærvø, “End of Eighth-Century Khotan,” 119–44; Guangda Zhang and Xinjiang Rong, “On the Dating of the Khotanese Documents from the Area of Khotan,” Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 3 (2008): 149–56; Moriyasu Takao, “Toban no Chūō shinshutsu” [The Expansion of Tibet into Central Asia], Kanazawa Daigaku Bungakubu Ronshū (shigakuka hen) 4 (1984): 1–85.
41. Yoshida, “On the Taxation System,” 100, 117.
42. Here I follow Yoshida, who explains the reasons for his view in “Karabalsagun Inscription,” 353–54.
43. Yoshida, “On the Taxation System,” 112–13n35.
44. Takeuchi, Old Tibetan Contracts, 118–19.
45. Yoshida, “On the Taxation System,” 114.
46. Stein, Ancient Khotan, 1:282, 307–8.
47. Ursula Sims-Williams, “Hoernle.”
48. Economic History Association: “Measuring Worth: Five Ways to Compute the Relative Value of a UK Pound Amount, 1830 to Present,” using retail price index, available online at http://www.measuringworth.com/ukcompare.
49. D. S. Margoliouth, “An Early Judæo-Persian Document from Khotan, in the Stein Collection, with Other Early Persian Documents,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (October 1903): 735–60, esp. 735–40, in which Stein explains the circumstances of discovery. Bo Utas has published the most accurate translation, “The Jewish-Persian Fragment from Dandān-Uiliq,” Orientalia Suecana 17 (1968): 123–36.
50. W. J. Fischel and G. Lazard, “Judaeo-persian,” Encyclopaedia of Islam Three, ed. Marc Gaborieu, vol. 4 (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010), 308–13. Available online by subscription at http://www.brillonline.nl/subscriber/entry?entry=islam_COM-0400.
51. Zhang Zhan and Shi Guang, “Yijian xinfaxian Youtai-Bosiyu xinzha de duandai yu shidu” [A Newly-discovered Judeo-Persian Letter], Dunhuang Tulufan Yanjiu 11 (2008): 71–99. I thank Zhang Zhan for showing me his unpublished English translation.
52. Skjærvø, “End of Eighth-Century Khotan,” 119.
53. P. Oktor Skjærvø estimated that cave 17 held over two thousand “individual pieces” in Khotanese. E-mail dated August 29, 2003.
54. Dalton, Davis, and van Schaik, “Beyond Anonymity.”
55. S2736, S1000, S5212a1, Or. 8212.162, P2927; Skjærvø, Catalogue, 35–36, 44–45; Takata Tokio, Tonkō shir
yō ni yoru Chūgokugo shi no kenkyū [A historical study of the Chinese language based on Dunhuang materials] (Tokyo: Sōbunsha, 1988), 199–227.
56. P5538; H. W. Bailey, “Hvatanica III,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies 9, no. 3 (1938): 521–43; updated translation by Skjærvø, unpublished manuscript.
57. P4640; Zhang Guangda and Rong Xinjiang, Yutian shi congkao [Collected studies on Khotanese history] (Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian, 1993), 112.
58. H. W. Bailey, “Altun Khan,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 30 (1967): 98.
59. Rolf A. Stein, “‘Saint et divin,’ Un titre tibétain et chinois des rois tibétains,” Journal Asiatique 209 (1981): 231–75, esp. 240–41.
60. Zhang and Rong, Yutian shi congkao, 110.
61. Valerie Hansen, “The Tribute Trade with Khotan in Light of Materials Found in the Dunhuang Library Cave,” Bulletin of the Asia Institute 19 (2005): 37–46.
62. There is a very helpful list of these missions in Hiroshi Kumamoto, “Khotanese Official Documents in the Tenth Century A.D.” (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1982), 63–65.
63. Song huiyao jigao [The important documents of the Song], Fanyi [The Fan and Yi non-Chinese peoples] (Beiping, China: Guoli Tushuguan, 1936), 7:1b. The original text has Li Shengwen, presumably an error for Li Shengtian.
64. Hansen, “Tribute Trade,” 42n5, gives the full references to the different documents about the seven princes and their translations. Scholars disagree about whether the documents date to the 890s or to 966.
65. They carried 600 jin, and each jin weighed about 600 grams. See “Table of Equivalent Measures,” in Hansen, Negotiating Daily Life, xiii.
66. Kumamoto, “Khotanese Official Documents,” 211–13.
67. P2786; as translated in Kumamoto, “Khotanese Official Documents,” 122, and discussed on 197.
68. P2958; translated in Bailey, “Altun Khan,” 96. James Hamilton suggests a possible date for the letter of 993: “Le pays des Tchong-yun, Čungul, ou Cumuḍa au Xe siècle,” Journal Asiatique 265, nos. 3–4 (1977): 351–79, esp. 368.
69. Zhang and Rong, Yutian shi congkao, 18.
70. P2958; as translated in Bailey, “Altun Khan,” 97.
71. Prods Oktor Skjærvø, “Perils of Princes and Ambassadors in Tenth-Century Khotan,” unpublished paper.
72. IOL Khot S. 13/Ch. 00269.109–20; translated in Skjærvø, Catalogue, 514.
73. Khot. S. 13/Ch. 00269; as translated in Skjærvø, Catalogue, 512.
74. Kumamoto, “Khotanese Official Documents,” 218.
75. Kumamoto, “Khotanese Official Documents,” 225.
76. Or. 8212.162.125-b5; as translated in Kumamoto, “Khotanese Official Documents.”
77. P2786; as translated in Kumamoto, “Khotanese Official Documents,” 120.
78. IOL Khot. S. 13/CH. 00269; as translated in Skjærvø, Catalogue, 511.
79. P2958; as translated in Bailey, “Altun Khan,” 98.
80. P2024; as translated in Kumamoto Hiroshi, “Miscellaneous Khotanese Documents from the Pelliot Collection,” Tokyo University Linguistics Papers (TULIP) 14 (1995): 229–57. P2024 is translated on 231–35 and discussed on 235–38.
81. Kumamoto, “Miscellaneous Khotanese Documents,” 230–31.
82. Kumamoto, “Khotanese Official Documents,” 119, 150, 182.
83. Peter B. Golden, “The Karakhanids and Early Islam,” in The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, ed. Denis Sinor (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 354.
84. Andreas Kaplony, “The Conversion of the Turks of Central Asia to Islam as Seen by Arabic and Persian Geography: A Comparative Perspective,” in Islamisation de l’Asie Centrale: Processus locaux d’acculturation du VIIe au XIe siècle, ed. Étienne de la Vaissière (Paris: Association pour l’Avancement des Études Iraniennes, 2008), 319–38.
85. H. W. Bailey, “Srī Viśa’ Śura and the Ta-uang,” Asia Major, n.s., 11 (1964): 1–26, translation of P5538 on 17–20.
86. Song huiyao, Fanyi, 7:3b; Kumamoto, “Khotanese Official Documents,” 64.
87. William Samolin, East Turkistan to the Twelfth Century: A Brief Political Survey (The Hague: Mouton, 1964), 81.
88. Mahṃūd al-Kāsgarī, Compendium of the Turkic Languages, ed. and trans. Robert Dankoff and James Kelly, vol. 1 (Duxbury, MA: Tekin, 1982), 270.
89. Tuotuo, Liaoshi [Official history of the Liao dynasty] (Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju, 1974), 14:162.
90. Tuotuo, Liaoshi, 14:162.
91. Song huiyao, Fanyi, 7:17b–18a; Kumamoto, “Khotanese Official Documents,” 64–65.
92. Cl. Huart, “Trois actes notariés arabes de Yarkend,” Journal Asiatique 4 (1914): 607–27; Marcel Erdal, “The Turkish Yarkand Documents,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 47 (1984): 261; Monika Gronke, “The Arabic Yārkand Documents,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 49 (1986): 454–507.
93. Jürgen Paul, “Nouvelles pistes pour la recherché sur l’histoire de l’Asie centrale à l’époque karakhanide (Xe–début XIIIe siècle),” in “Études karakhanides,” ed. Vincent Fourniau, special issue, Cahiers d’Asie Centrale 9 (2001): 13–34, esp. 33n64.
94. Map 2 in O. Pritsak, “Von den Karluk zu den Karachaniden,” Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 101 (1951): 270–300.
95. The best introduction to the history of Xinjiang between 1000 and the present is James A. Millward, Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007).
96. W. Barthold, Turkestan Down to the Mongol Invasion, 3d ed., trans. T. Minorsky (London: Luzac, 1968), 401–3; René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, trans. Naomi Walford (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1970), 233–36.
97. Marco Polo, The Travels of Marco Polo, trans. Ronald Latham (New York: Penguin Books, 1958) 82–83. Quotations slightly modified for consistency.
98. Ursula Sims-Williams, “Khotan in the Third to Fourth Centuries,” 138.
99. Frances Wood, Did Marco Polo Go to China? (London: Secker & Warburg, 1995); Igor de Rachewiltz, “Marco Polo Went to China” Zentralasiatische Studien 27 (1997): 34–92.
100. Thomas Allsen, “Mongolian Princes and Their Merchant Partners, 1200–1600,” Asia Major, 3d ser., 3 (1989): 83–126; Elizabeth Endicott-West, “Merchant Associations in Yüan China: The Orto γ,” Asia Major, 3d ser., 3 (1989): 127–54.
101. Michal Biran, “The Chaghadaids and Islam: The Conversion of Tarmashirin Khan (1331–34),” Journal of the American Oriental Society 122 (2002): 742–52.
102. Morris Rossabi, “Ming China and Turfan, 1406–1517,” Central Asiatic Journal 16 (1972): 206–25.
103. L. Carrington Goodrich, “Goes, Bento de,” in Dictionary of Ming Biography, 1368–1644, ed. L. Carrington Goodrich (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 472–74.
104. Jonathan N. Lipman, Familiar Strangers: A History of Muslims in Northwest China (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1997), 58–102.
105. Perdue, China Marches West.
106. James A. Millward, Beyond the Pass: Economy, Ethnicity, and Empire in Qing Central Asia, 1759–1864 (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998), 204–5.
107. Kim, Holy War in China; A. A. Kuropatkin, Kashgaria: Eastern or Chinese Turkistan, trans. Walter E. Gowan (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink, 1882).
108. Komil Kalanov and Antonio Alonso, “Sacred Places and ‘Folk’ Islam in Central Asia,” UNISCI Discussion Papers 17 (2008): 175.
109. Hamadi Masami, “Le mausolée de Satuq Bughra Khan à Artush,” Journal of the History of Sufism 3 (2001): 63–87.
110. Rahilä Dawut, “Shrine Pilgrimage among the Uighurs,” Silk Road 6, no. 2 (2009): 56–67 available online at http://www.silk-road.com/newsletter/vol6num2/srjournal_v6n2.pdf.
111. Joseph Fletcher, “Les voies (turuq) soufies en Chine,” in Les Ordres mystiques dans l’Islam, ed. Alexandre Popović and Gilles Veinstein (Paris: EHESS, 1986) 13–
26, esp. 23.
112. Jane Macartney, “China Prevents Muslims from Hajj,” Muslim Observer, November 29, 2007, available online at http://muslimmedianetwork.com/mmn/?p=1545; “Mapping the Global Muslim Population: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Muslim Population” (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2009).
Art Credits
COLOR PLATE SECTION
Plate 1: From Xinjiang Museum, ed., Xinjiang chutu wenwu (Excavated Artifacts from Xinjiang) (Shanghai: Wenwu chubanshe, 1975), plate 183. Plate 2–3: From Volume I of China: Ergebnisse eigener residen und darauf gegründeter studien (Berlin: D. Reimer, 1877–1912), facing p. 500. Plate 4A: © The Trustees of the British Museum, Stein IA.XII. cl AN 00031987001. Plate 4B: © The Trustees of the British Museum, Stein IA.XII.cl AN0012869001. Plate 5A: © The Trustees of the British Museum, L. A. I. 002, AN 00009325001. Plate 5B: From Serindia Plate XL. Plates 6 and 7: Wang Binghua. Plate 8: Xinjiang Museum. Plate 9: Author photo. Plate 10: From Central Asia and Tibet, facing page 106. Plate 11A: Museum fuer Asiatische Kunst, Staatliche Museen, Berlin, Germany, MIK III 4979 V. Plate 11B: François Ory. Plate 12: Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Manuscrits orientaux, hébrue 1412. Plate 13: From Xinjiang Wewuer Zijiqu Bowuguan, plate 34–5. Plate 14: From Xian Bei Zhou An Jia Mu, plate 42. Plate 15: From Xian Bei Zhou An Jia Mu, color plate 8. Plate 16A: Mathew Andrews, 12/11/08. Plate 16B: Mathew Andrews, 7/8/10.
INTRODUCTION
Page 2: Xinjiang Museum, Document #66TAM61:17(b). 11: From Xinjiang chutu wenwu, plate 180. 16: From Chang, The Rise of the Chinese Empire, plate 5.
CHAPTER 1
Page 25: Courtesy of the Board of the British Library. 31: Courtesy of rock art archive, Heidelberg Academy of Sciences. 37: From Serindia, figure 63, Courtesy of the Board of the British Library 392/27 (89). 39: From Xinjiang chutu wenwu, plate 35. 40, 41: Wang Binghua. 46: From Ancient Khotan, Page 406, plate 72. 53: Wang Binghua.
CHAPTER 2
Page 57: BNF, Manuscrits orientaux, Pelliot Koutchéen LP I + II. 62: Courtesy of the Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 63: From The Art in the Caves of Xinjiang, Cave 17, Plate 8. 67: Takeshi Watanabe, 7/25/06.
The Silk Road: A New History Page 38