We learn from Zenothemis that in his time these stones were not held by the people of India in any high esteem, although they are found there of so large a size as to admit of the hilts of swords being made of them. It is well known, too, that in that country they are exposed to view by the mountain-streams, and that in our part of the world they were formerly valued from the fact that they are nearly the only ones among the engraved precious stones that do not bring away the wax when an impression is made. The consequence is, that our example has at last taught the people of India to set a value upon them, and the lower classes there now pierce them even, to wear them as ornaments for the neck; the great proof, in fact, at the present day, of a sardonyx being of Indian origin. Those of Arabia are remarkable for their marginal line of brilliant white, of considerable breadth, and not glistening in hollow fissures in the stone or upon the sides, but shining upon the very surface, at the margin, and supported by a ground intensely black beneath. In the stones of India, this ground is like wax in colour, or else like cornel, with a circle also of white around it. In some of these stones, too, there is a play of colours like those of the rainbow, while the surface is redder even than the shell of the sea-locust.
Those stones which are like honey in appearance, or of a fæculent colour — such being the name given to one defect in them — are generally disapproved of. They are rejected also when the white zone blends itself with the other colours, and its limits are not definitely marked; or if, in like manner, it is irregularly intersected by any other colour; it being looked upon as an imperfection if the regularity of any one of the colours is interrupted by the interposition of another. The sardonyx of Armenia is held in some esteem, but the zone round it is of a pallid hue.
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CHAP. 24.
ONYX: THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT.
We must give some account also of onyx, because of the name which it partly shares in common with sardonyx. This name, though in some places given to a marble, is here used to signify a precious stone. Sudines says, that in this stone there is a white portion which resembles the white of the human-finger nail, in addition to the colours of chrysolithos, sarda, and iaspis. According to Zenothemis, there are numerous varieties of the Indian onyx, the fiery-coloured, the black, and the cornel, with white veins encircling them, like an eye as it were, and in some cases running across them obliquely. Sotacus mentions an Arabian onyx, which differs from the rest; that of India, according to him, presenting small flames, each surrounded by one or more white zones; in a manner altogether different from the Indian sardonyx, which presents a series of white specks, while in this case it is one continuous circle. The Arabian onyx, on the other hand, is black, he says, with a white zone encircling it.
Satyrus says, that there is an onyx in India of a flesh colour, partly resembling carbuneulus, and partly chrysolithos and amethystos; a variety, however, which he altogether disapproves of. The real onyx, according to him, has numerous veins of variegated colours, interspersed with others of a milk-white hue; the shades of which, as they pass into one another, produce a tint which surpasses all description, and blends itself into one harmonious whole, of a most beautiful appearance.
Not unlike sardonyx, too, is sarda, a stone which also has, in part, a kindred name with it; but before passing on to it, we must first take some notice of all those precious stones which have a brilliancy like that of flame.
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CHAP. 25. (7.)
CARBUNCULUS: TWELVE VARIETIES OF IT.
In the first rank among these is carbunculus, so called from its resemblance to fire; though in reality it is proof against the action of that element: hence it is that some persons call these stones “acaustoi.” There are various kinds of carbunculus, the Indian and the Garamantic, for example, which last has been also called the Carchedonian, in compliment to the former opulence of Great Carthage. To these are added the Æthiopian and the Alabandic stones, the latter of which are found at Orthosia in Caria, but are cut and polished at Alabanda. In addition to this, each kind is subdivided into the male carbunculus and the female, the former of which is of a more striking brilliancy, the brightness of the latter being not so strong. In the male varieties too, we see some in which the fire is clearer than in others; while some, again, are of a darker hue, or else have their brilliancy more deeply seated, and shine with a more powerful lustre than others when viewed in the sun.
The most highly esteemed, however, is the amethyst-coloured stone, the fire at the extremity of which closely approaches the violet tint of amethystos: next in value to which, are the stones known as “syrtites,” radiant with a wavy, feathery, refulgence. They are found more particularly, it is said, where the reflection is most powerful of the rays of the sun. Satyrus says that the carbunculus of India has no lustre, that it is mostly soiled, and that in all cases its brilliancy is of a tawny complexion. The Æthiopian stones, he says, are dense, emit no lustre, and burn with a concentrated flame. According to Callistratus, the refulgence of this stone should be of a whitish hue, and, when placed upon a table, it should heighten by its lustre other stones placed near it that are clouded at the edge. Hence it is, that many writers speak of this stone as the white carbunculus, while the Indian stone, with its comparatively feeble lustre, is known by the name of “ lignyzon.” The Carchedonian stones, they say, are of much smaller size than the others; but those of India admit of being hollowed out, and making vessels that will hold as much as one sextarius even.
According to Archelaüs, the Carchedonian carbunculus is of a more swarthy appearance than the others, but, when exposed to the light of the fire or sun, and viewed obliquely, the brilliancy of it is much more intense than that of the rest. He says, too, that this stone, when overshadowed by a roof, has a purple tint; that when viewed in the open air, it is of a flame colour; and that, when exposed to the rays of the sun, it scintillates. He states also that wax, if sealed with these stones, in the shade even, will melt. Many authors have asserted that the Indian stones are paler than the Carchedonian, and that, quite the converse of these last, they are all the less brilliant when viewed obliquely; as also, that in the male Carchedonian stone there are luminous points like stars within, while, in the case of the female stone, the whole of its refulgence is thrown beyond it. The stones of Alabanda too, it is said, are darker than the other kinds, and rough on the surface. In the vicinity also of Miletus, there are stones of this description found in the earth, resembling those of Alabanda in colour, and proof against the action of fire.
According to Theophrastus, these stones are to be found also at Orchomenus in Arcadia and in the Isle of Chios; the former of which are of a darker hue, and are used for making mirrors. He says too, that at Trœzen they are found of various colours and mottled with white spots, those found at Corinth being of a more pallid, whitish, hue. He states also, that they are sometimes imported from Massilia. Bocchus informs us in his writings, that these stones are extracted from the ground at Olisipo; at the cost of great labour, however, in consequence of the parched, argillaceous, nature of the soil.
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CHAP. 26.
DEFECTS IN CARBUNCULUS, AND THE MODE OF TESTING IT.
Nothing is more difficult than to distinguish the several varieties of this stone, so great an opportunity do they afford to artistic skill of compelling them to reflect the colours of substances placed beneath. It is possible, they say, to heighten the brilliancy of dull stones, by steeping them for fourteen days in vinegar, this adventitious lustre being retained by them as many months. They are counterfeited, too, with great exactness in glass; but the difference may be detected with the touchstone; the same being the case also with other artificial stones, as the material is always of a softer nature and comparatively brittle. When thus tested by the stone, hard knots, too, are detected in them; and the weight of the glass counterfeit is always less. In some cases, too, they present small blisters within, which shin
e like silver.
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CHAP. 27.
ANTHRACITIS.
There is also a fossil stone found in Thesprotia, known as “anthracitis,” and resembling a burning coal in appearance. Those who have stated that it is a native also of Liguria, are mistaken, in my opinion, unless perhaps it was to be found there in their time. Some of these stones, they say, are surrounded with a vein of white. Like those which we have mentioned above, they have a fiery colour, but there is this peculiarity in them, that when thrown into the fire they have all the appearance of becoming quenched and deadened; while, on the other hand, if they are drenched with water, they become doubly glowing.
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CHAP. 28.
SANDASTROS. SANDARESOS.
Of a kindred nature, too, is sandastros, known as “garamantites” by some: it is found in India, at a place of that name, and is a product also of the southern parts of Arabia. The great recommendation of it is, that it has all the appearance of fire placed behind a transparent substance, it burning with star-like scintillations within, that resemble drops of gold, and are always to be seen in the body of the stone, and never upon the surface. There are certain religious associations, too, connected with this stone, in consequence of the affinity which it is supposed to bear with the stars; these scintillations being mostly, in number and arrangement, like the constellations of the Pleiades and Hyades; a circumstance which had led to the use of it by the Chaldæi in the ceremonials which they practise.
Here, too, the male stones are distinguished from the female, by their comparative depth of colour and the vigorousness of the tints which they impart to objects near them: indeed the stones of India, it is said, quite dim the sight by their brilliancy. The flame of the female sandastros is of a more softened nature, and may be pronounced to be lustrous rather than brilliant. Some prefer the stone of Arabia to that of India, and say that this last bears a considerable resemblance to a smoke-coloured chrysolithos. Ismenias asserts that sandastros, in consequence of its extreme softness, will not admit of being polished, a circumstance which makes it sell all the dearer: other writers, again, call these stones “sandrisitæ.” One point upon which all the authorities are agreed is, that the greater the number of stars upon the stone, the more costly it is in price.
The similarity of the name has sometimes caused this stone to be confounded with that known as “sandaresos,” and which Nicander calls “sandaserion,” and others “sandaseron.” Some, again, call this last-mentioned stone “sandastros,” and the former one “sandaresos.” The stone that is thus mentioned by Nicander, is a native of India as well as the other, and likewise takes its name from the locality where it is found. The colour of it is that of an apple, or of green oil, and no one sets any value on it.
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CHAP. 29.
LYCHNIS: FOUR VARIETIES OF IT.
To the same class of flame-coloured stones belongs that known as “lychnis;” so called from its lustre being height- ened by the light of the lamp, under which circumstances its tints are particularly pleasing. It is found in the vicinity of Orthosia, throughout the whole of Caria, and in the neighbouring localities; but the most approved stones are those that come from India. Some writers have given the name of “deadened” carbunculus to a lychnis of second-rate quality, and similar in colour to the flower known as the “flower of Jove.” I find other varieties also mentioned, one with a purple radiance, and another of a scarlet tint. It is asserted, too, that these stones, when heated or rubbed between the fingers, will attract chaff and filaments of paper.
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CHAP. 30.
CARCHEDONIA.
Carchedonia, too, is said to have the same property, though far inferior in value to the stones already mentioned. It is found in the mountains among the Nasamones, being produced, the natives think, by showers sent for the purpose from heaven. These stones are found by the light of the moon, more particularly when at full: in former days, Carthage was the entrepô for them. Archelaüs speaks of a brittle variety being found in the vicinity of Thebes also, in Egypt, full of veins, and similar to dying embers in appearance. I find it stated, too, that in former times, drinking-vessels used to be made of this stone and of lychnis: all these kinds of stone, however, offer the most obstinate resistance to the graver, and, if used for seals, are apt to bring away a part of the wax.
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CHAP. 31.
SARDA : FIVE VARIETIES OF IT.
Sarda, on the other hand, is remarkably useful for this purpose; a stone which shares its name, in part, with sardonyx. It is a common stone, and was first found at Sardes, but the most esteemed kind is that of the vicinity of Babylon. When certain quarries are being worked, these stones are found, adhering, like a kind of heart, to the interior of the rock. This mineral, however, is said to be now extinct in Persia; though it is to be found in numerous other localities, Paros and Assos, for example.
In India there are three varieties of this stone; the red sarda, the one known as “pionia,” from its thickness, and a third kind, beneath which they place a ground of silver tinsel. The Indian stones are transparent, those of Arabia being more opaque. There are some found also in the vicinity of Leucas in Epirus, and in Egypt, which have a ground placed beneath them of leaf gold. In the case of this stone, too, the male stone shines with a more attractive brilliancy than the female, which is of a thicker substance, and more opaque. Among the ancients there was no precious stone in more common use than this; at all events, it is this stone that is made so much parade of in the comedies of Menander and Philemon. No one, too, among the transparent stones is tarnished more speedily by exposure to moisture than this; though of all liquids, it is oil that acts the most readily upon it. Those stones which are like honey in colour, are generally disapproved of, and still more so, when they have the complexion of earthenware.
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CHAP. 32. (8.)
TOPAZOS: TWO VARIETIES OF IT.
Topazos is a stone that is still held in very high estimation for its green tints: indeed, when it was first discovered, it was preferred to every other kind of precious stone. It so happened that some Troglodytic pirates, suffering from tempest and hunger, having landed upon an island off the coast of Arabia known as Cytis, when digging there for roots and grass, discovered this precious stone: such, at least, is the opinion expressed by Archelaüs. Juba says that there is an island in the Red Sea called “Topazos,” at a distance of three hundred stadia from the main land; that it is surrounded by fogs, and is often sought by navigators in consequence; and that, owing to this, it received its present name, the word “topazin” meaning “to seek,” in the language of the Troglodytæ. He states also, that Philon, the king’s præfect, was the first to bring these stones from this island; that, on his presenting them to Queen Berenice, the mother of the second Ptolemæus, she was wonderfully pleased with them; and that, at a later period, a statue, four cubits in height, was made of this stone, in honour of Arsinoë, the wife of Ptolemæus Philadelphus, it being consecrated in the temple known as the “Golden Temple.”
The most recent writers say that this stone is found also in the vicinity of Alabastrum, a city of Thebais, and they distinguish two varieties of it, the prasoïdes and the chrysopteron; which last is similar to chrysoprasus, all the shades of it tending, more or less, to resemble the colouring principle of the leek. Topazos is the largest of all the precious stones, and is the only one among those of high value that yields to the action of the file, the rest being polished by the aid of stone of Naxos. It admits, too, of being worn by use.
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CHAP. 33.
CALLAINA.
With this stone we must also couple another, which resembles it more closely in appearance than in value, the stone known as “callaina,” and of a pale green colour. It is found in the countries that lie at the
back of India, among the Phycari, namely, who inhabit Mount Caucasus, the Sacæ, and the Dahæ. It is remarkable for its size, but is covered with holes and full of extraneous matter; that, however, which is found in Carmania is of a finer quality, and far superior. In both cases, however, it is only amid frozen and inaccessible rocks that it is found, protruding from the surface, like an eye in appearance, and slightly adhering to the rock; not as though it formed an integral part of it, but with all the appearance of having been attached to it. People so habituated as they are to riding on horseback, cannot find the energy and dexterity requisite for climbing the rocks to obtain the stones, while, at the same time, they are quite terrified at the danger of doing so. Hence it is, that they attack the stones with slings from a distance, and so bring them down, moss and all. It is with this stone that the people pay their tribute, and this the rich look upon as their most graceful ornament for the neck. This constitutes the whole of their wealth, with some, and it is their chief glory to recount how many of these stones they have brought down from the mountain heights since the days of their childhood. Their success, however, is extremely variable; for while some, at the very first throw, have brought down remarkably fine specimens, many have arrived at old age without obtaining any.
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