“neck which was tilted slightly to the left” and “a certain melting look” Plut Alex 4 1–2.
attractive prostitute from Thessaly Athen 10:435a.
“his looks and boyishness” Just 12 12 11.
“used to say that sleep and sex” Plut Alex 22 3.
“Aeschylus [the tragic playwright]” Plato Symp 179e.
regent of the kingdom Plut Alex 9 1.
“I slept safely” Plut Mor 179b.
thought well of his charge I say so because Antipater was an unhesitating supporter after Philip’s death a few years later.
tried to bribe some Macedonians Val Max 7 2, ext. 10.
“gift-devouring lords” Hes WD, line 39.
a population of 500,000 Roisman, p. 477.
“as from a watch-tower” Just 8 1.
“an Iliad of woes” Dem 19 148.
“like a ram” Poly 2 38 2.
annual income of a thousand talents Ibid., 16 8 6.
“I enlarged my kingdom” Ibid., 16 53 3.
“He was the worst manager” Theo Phil FGrH 115 F 217.
“With every campaign” Ath 13 557b.
“You are your own best magic” Plut Mor 141b.
When Nicesipolis died in childbirth Carney (2000), pp. 155–57.
“violet-crowned” Pind frag. 76.
The population of adult male citizens Everitt, p. 379f.
“It is an Athenian” Theo Hell frag 213.
“These then are the complaints” Dem 12 23.
the small town of Chaeronea For my account of the battle, I rely on Hammond (1959). The sources have little to say and much is speculative, but Hammond is convincing and coherent.
“On, on, on, to Macedonia” Poly 4 2 7. See the same source for the below remark of Philip.
archaeologists excavated Pritchett, passim.
“Death to those who suspect” Plut Pel 18 5.
“extravagantly fond” Plut Alex 9 4.
CHAPTER 3. “THE BULL IS WREATHED”
“the deification of renown” Cic Nat 2 24.
toured the battlefield Plut Dem 20 3.
“King, when fate” Diod 16 87 1–2.
The king artfully avoided Just 9 4 1–4.
“careful to manage Greek affairs” Plut Mor 177c 4.
“By his kindness and moderation” Polyb 5 10 4.
“Striving to save the sacred land” IG II2 5226.
“common peace” A much used phrase in the fourth century B.C.; the ideal was honored more in the breach than in the observance.
“I swear by Zeus” IG II2 236.
All the oath-givers An analogy suggests itself with NATO, with the United States as hegemon.
“if anyone revolts” Merritt, pp. 355–59.
right to convene a Panhellenic army The text of the full treaty has not survived and we do not know exactly what such a right might consist in. Perhaps Philip was using his implicit authority rather than relying on a treaty clause.
Isocrates has left helpful clues Isoc Phil 5 119ff.
“The bull is wreathed. All is done.” Diod 16 91 2.
“The Athenians elect ten generals” Plut Mor 177c.
Philip…fell in love Plut Alex 9 3–6, mainly, for the quarrel and reconciliation.
“Now, for sure” Ath 13 557d–e.
“Cretin, do you take me” Plut Alex 9 8.
stayed with King Langarus For this sensible suggestion, see Green, p. 90.
“Alexander is not my son” Just 11 11 3–5. This is the only source for this event and should be treated with caution. If the account is true, the episode must have taken place after mother and son’s departure from Pella.
Alexander as their king Plut Alex 9 3.
plotting his overthrow Green, p. 90f.
“These men flung away national prosperity” Dem 18 295.
“Good for you to ask” For the intervention of Demaratus, Plut Alex 9 and Plut Mor 179c 5.
the mother of the bride It is often assumed that Olympias remained in Epirus, but it seems more likely that she too was present at Aegae. If Philip wanted to present the image of a happy and united family, it would have been odd for her to have been absent.
A handsome Royal Page For Pausanias’s story, Diod 16 93–4 and Just 9 6–7.
in touch with Pixodarus Plut Alex 10 1–5, the only source for this incident. Some commentators doubt the story on grounds of inherent improbability, but there is no reason to do so. Human beings must be allowed to behave foolishly and erratically.
“reproached him for behaving” Ibid., 10 3.
group of youthful followers Arrian 3 6 5.
rumored to have been sired Paus 1 6 2.
Harpalus, probably the nephew of Phila Ath 13 557c.
a remarkable young woman Poly 8 60.
wedding of the king Diod 16 4–5.
the kingdom’s old capital, Aegae See the Greek Ministry of Culture website http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh3540.jsp?obj_id=2362.
popular Athenian actor Plut Mor 844f.
“matchless in the power of his voice” Diod 16 92 3.
“Your thoughts reach higher” Ibid.
“worked with great artistry” Ibid., 92 5.
an uneasy frame of mind Just 11 1.
wearing a breastplate Stoneman, p. 57.
“established his authority” Diod 17 2 2.
plotting with the Athenians Diod 17 5 1, for the end of Attalus.
sent a hetairos, or Companion Diod 17 2 4–5.
“Greece was still gasping” Plut Mor 327c.
a two-room tomb at Aegae This tomb, along with two others, was uncovered in 1977 and 1978. It contained the remains of a middle-aged male. After years of controversy, these have been firmly identified as those of Philip. This is because knee ankylosis and a hole through the knee tie perfectly with the penetrating wound and lameness known to have been suffered by Philip II. The tomb also contained, in the second chamber, the remains of a young woman about eighteen years of age and of an infant; these are very probably those of Philip’s last wife, Cleopatra, and her infant daughter, Europa. We do not know whether the tomb was already built when Philip died. If not, then some time would have had to elapse before its occupants were housed.
Cicero’s famous test, Cui bono? Cic Rosc 84.
“The father, bride, and bridegroom” Eur Med 288.
the getaway horses Just 9 7, for Olympias’s activities after the assassination.
Philip’s widow Paus 8 7 7.
valued eunuchs highly Herod 8 105.
“when at meals” Xen Cyr 7 5 59–60.
“A eunuch in physical fact” Diod 17 5 3, for the Bagoas story.
Darius once accepted a challenge Diod 17 6 1.
tried to suborn Greek soldiers Curt 4 10 16.
He seems to have heard of the assassination Renault, pp. 64–65.
“overwhelmed by Persian gold” Plut Dem 14 2
gave himself “prodigious airs” Aesch Ctes 160, and for Demosthenes’ general reaction to Philip’s death.
he was past his best Hammond 1979, p. 691f.
CHAPTER 4. THE LONE WOLF
Alexander’s advisers urged caution Plut Alex 11 2.
“immediately offered up sacrifices” Plut Dem 21 1–2.
“keep watch over the omens” Aesch Ctes 160.
“they had been only a little premature” Diod 17 4 3.
Demosthenes was appointed Ibid., 17 4 7–8. Plut Dem 23 3.
tiny city-state of Megara Plut Mor 826c–d.
“I swear by Zeus” Tod 177.
to meet Diogenes see Diog Lae 6, passim, for Diogenes.
“Humans have complicated” Diog Lae 6 44.
“a Socrates gone mad” Ibid., 6 54.
extremely independent-minded Plut Alex 14 1–5 for the famous encounter between Diogenes and Alexander. Also Diog Lae 6.78 and 32.
stubborn, implacable and self-absorbed I am indebted to Peter Green for this insight. Green, p. 123.
revolts in the north Arrian 1 4–6 11 for the Danube campaign.
he called by at Delphi Plut Alex 14 5–7. The historicity of the encounter with the Pythia is sometimes doubted, but this view rests on connoisseurship rather than evidence.
fifteen thousand highly trained Macedonians Bosworth 1988 p29.
the ancient Greek word pothos Ibid., 1 3 5. Also 2 3 1, 3 1 5, and 7 2 2.
“It is only between those who are good” Ar Nic Eth 8 3 6.
“When he heard that Alexander wanted to know” Arrian 1 5 3.
The fortified settlement of Pelium Ibid., 1 5 8–12, 6 1–8 for the episode. Also Fuller, pp. 223–26, and Hammond (1988), pp. 39–48. I follow Hammond’s interpretation and his identification of the battlefield.
“He commanded total silence” Arrian 1 6 1–2.
baggage train followed The sources do not make this explicitly clear, but it must be inferred by the reference to catapults.
“Alexander let them get close” Arrian 1 6 7–8.
He always sent scouts out ahead Ibid., 1 12 7.
“the feelings of all the cities” Just 11 2 9.
“making play with the fine old words” Arrian 1 7 2.
To abrogate unilaterally See Hammond (1988), pp. 62–64, for the consequences of abrogation.
“Demosthenes called me a boy” Plut Alex 11 3.
Cleopatra, and her little girl Just 9 7 12. Some argue that Cleopatra also had a son, Caranus, but he is probably a fiction.
As usual she overdid things Paus 8 7 7.
furious with her Plut Alex 10 4.
a place where male lovers worshipped Plut Erot 761d.
The citadel was close For the capture of Thebes there are two versions, one by Diod 17 9 1–6 and the other by Arrian 1 8 1–8. The former is a rhetorical cocktail and the latter is to be preferred, although it makes sense that Alexander and P. agreed a plan of attack as Diodorus reports. The origin of the story of P.’s premature assault is attributed to his personal enemy, Ptolemy. But this is more likely to have been a disobliging report of something that happened than an invention. See Hammond (1980), pp. 60–63 (but also see Green, p. 529, n. 52).
“There followed a furious slaughter” Arrian 1 8 8.
That universal moralist, Isocrates Isoc Plat, passim.
Theban musician Ismenias Alex Rom 1 27.
“Creatures for a day!” Pind Pyth 8.
house was left untouched Arrian 1 9 10.
Some wolves were trying to surprise Aes 217.
“Wolves tend to be man-eaters” Ar Anim 594 a–b.
“may have trusted in his personal relationship” Plut Dem 23 6.
CHAPTER 5. FIRST BLOOD
For the visit to Troy, Plutarch (Life of Alexander) and Arrian are the main sources. The Battle of the Granicus is described in Plutarch 16, Arrian 1 13–16, and Diodorus 17 19–22.
“while leaping foremost of the Achaeans” Il 2 702.
“From the gods I accept Asia” Diod 17 17 2.
“small and cheap” Strabo 13 1 25–26.
“I don’t care a jot for that lyre” Plut Alex 15 9.
as great a poet as Homer Cic Arch 10 24.
He assembled his expeditionary force Diod 17 16 3.
a vast marquee Hammond (1980).
“everything else suitable” Diod 17 16.
a large number of men See Hammond (1980), pp. 67–68, Green, p.158, and Bosworth, pp. 35–38. Ancient historians were unhelpful with numbers. Either they did not have access to accurate data or they inflated them to make a powerful impression. Those proposed here are best estimates.
Parmenion’s advance force Poly 5 44 4. It is not altogether clear that the size of the advance force is to be added to that of the invasion army to reach a grand total. But the implication in the ancient sources is that it should and I agree.
“You should spare your own property” Just 11 6.
special interest in animals Bodson, pp. 136–38.
When he saw peacocks Ael 15 21.
“he gave orders to some thousands” Pliny 8 44.
What was it like to be a soldier This section is indebted to Engels and Connolly (1977) and (1998).
“though the pointed barbs” Il 4 213–19.
A skeleton dating from about 300 B.C. Jackson, p. 68. The medical discussion in these paragraphs is indebted to Jackson, passim. Much of the information about ancient medicine dates from the first century A.D. or later, but we may suppose that much is relevant to Alexander’s day.
one modern estimate Ibid., p. 68.
“confided to him” Plut Alex 3 3.
Both Antipater at home and Parmenion Diod 17 16 2.
“It would be a disgrace” Ibid.
One of his daughters…was called Barsine For more on Barsine and her date of birth, see Barsine entry at Heckel (2009).
the Persians mustered an estimated force The ancient sources disagree on the numbers. I offer a likely estimate.
“Instead, they should march on” Arrian 1 12 9.
“My inheritance from my father” Ibid., 7 9 6. Ancient historians often put into speeches sentiments appropriate to the occasion rather than what was actually said. However, a similar factual point is also made in Curt 10 2 24. Arrian’s account is plausible.
“When he had shared out or given away” Plut Alex 15 2–3.
If one reads between the lines Green, 155–56.
His omnipresent scouts warned Two main accounts of the Battle of the Granicus survive. That by Diodorus (17 17–21) can safely be ignored, for it is a rhetorical confection. He argues that Alexander did not fight the day he arrived on the scene, but crossed the river the following dawn, after which a conventional pitched battle took place. Except for the odd detail, he is best ignored. Arrian (1 13–16) is more objective, but leaves gaps. He has the battle take place without delay, but is not interested in its development as a whole; so we are told about activity on the right wing, where Alexander was in charge, but hear nothing of the Macedonian left, under Parmenion’s command. Reference is made to the Macedonian right shifting to the right in Polyaenus (4 3 16), but without clear explanation. My reconstruction supposes that 1. The Persians were not in line of battle and did not have time to insert the Greek infantry into it. For this I have no evidence, except for want of a convincing alternative; 2. The consequence if not the purpose of the shift to the right was to thin the Persian line to assist Alexander’s attack and for the Agrianians et al. to strike at the enemy flank. This is guesswork but is based on probabilistic fundamentals, even if they are not mentioned in the inadequate ancient sources. Much of my narrative is indebted to Badian, pp. 224–36.
When the Granicus came into view The river today looks much as it did in Alexander’s time and, to judge by an old Roman bridge nearby, has not significantly altered its course. There is a great deal of vegetation, which cannot have been present when the battle was fought and may be a result of modern irrigation.
a habit of rejecting his advice For one example from many, see Green, p. 175.
“It seems to me, sir” Arrian 1 13 3–5. There is no good reason for rejecting this story, as some have done who blame a later but purely putative campaign to ruin Parmenion’s reputation.
The center was occupied The composition of this assault force is somewhat unclear. It may also have included an infantry company led by Ptolemy, son of Philip.
was carrying the antiq
ue shield Diod 17 21 2.
two blows on his breastplate Diod 17 21 2.
“A fierce fight developed” Arrian 1 15 4.
disheartened—albeit till now disengaged—enemy The sources tell us next to nothing of what Parmenion and his left wing did during the battle. I assume that they waited until the outcome of the special assault force’s attack and then Alexander’s charge became clear, and that the Persian cavalry opposite them did nothing. They then charged across the river. If anything outstanding occurred on the left, I assume we would have been told.
“It was here that most” Plut Alex 16 7.
“showed great care for the wounded” Arrian 1 16 5.
“Alexander the son of Philip” Ibid., 1 16 7.
no one rises so high Oliver Cromwell to Pomponne de Bellievre, as told to Cardinal de Retz in 1651. Memoirs of Cardinal de Retz (London and New York: Merrill and Baker, 1717?), p. 264.
CHAPTER 6. UNDOING THE KNOT
The major sources are Arrian and the sometimes unreliable Diodorus, with a slight contribution from Justin. Fuller offers convincing accounts of the sieges.
Once upon a time in Phrygia The section on the Gordian knot derives from Arrian 2 3 1–8, Curtius 3 1 14–18, Plutarch Life of Alexander 18 1–2 and Justin 11 7 3–16. There are other versions of the rise of Midas; I have mainly followed Arrian.
“It’s undone now” Arrian 2 3 7. According to another version, he simply pulled out a bolt or pole pin, which released the pole.
“in a position of honor” Ibid., 1 17 4.
“prevented any further inquisitions” Ibid., 1 17 12.
Strabo…recounts that the king Strabo 14 1 22–3.
the famous artist Apelles For Apelles generally, Pliny NH 35 79–97, 7 125, and Ael VH 2 3. Although we have many descriptions of ancient Greek panel paintings, not a single one has survived the upheavals at the end of the Roman empire. However, some wall paintings have been discovered—for example, in the Macedonian royal tombs at Vergina.
“sold for the price of a whole town” Pliny NH 35 50.
One fine morning For the best-known account of the fall of Troy, see Virg, Aen, book 2. This section on siegecraft is much indebted to Connolly (1977), pp. 50, 64–69.
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