The following communications tell the final steps of the exchange. The first is to the president of Congress, in which Washington says,
I have the pleasure to inform Congress that at the late meeting of the respective commissaries, the exchanges of about one hundred and forty of our officers, and all our privates in New York, amounting to four hundred and seventy-six, were effected. Among the former are Major General Lincoln, Brigadier-General Thompson, Waterbury, and Duportail, and Lieutenant Colonel Laurens.
Washington was pessimistic that the British would accept the proposal, but Duportail’s exchange was effected on October 17, 1780.22
In a letter to General Greene, commander of the Army in the South, dated November 7, 1780, he sent the following message, with a letter to General Duportail enclosed: “I have to request that you will be pleased to send by a flag of truce the enclosed letter to Brigadier-General Duportail, who is exchanged.”23
Washington wrote to General Duportail the next day, “I have the pleasure to announce to you your exchange for Brigadier General de Gaull the Convention troops. Inclosed you have a Certificate of the same, and Sir Henry Clinton’s passport for your return to Philadelphia. I need not tell you how happy I shall be to see you again with the army.”24
One can better imagine than describe the joy with which this message was received. Duportail regretted that he could not take his subalterns with him. Colonels Laumoy and Cambray and Captain L’Enfant were not exchanged until nearly a year after the surrender of Yorktown, although they had been previously released on parole for some time.25
General Duportail had been a prisoner in Charleston since May 1780. His certificate of release was dated November 1780, but some time elapsed before it reached him at Charleston. Before leaving the South, he visited General Greene at his camp on the Pee Dee River in early January 1781. Greene had been put in command of the Army of the South after its defeat under General Gates at Camden. Duportail was traveling under a British “passport” to Philadelphia, where his exchange was to be finalized. Colonel Nisbet Balfour, the British commander at Charleston, angrily complained that by visiting Nathanael Greene’s camp, Duportail had committed a “direct breach of that passport.”26
Duportail may have seen Lafayette, for he speaks of bringing letters from him to Washington as he was on his way to join the Northern Army and to inform General Washington about conditions in the Southern Department. He stopped at Petersburg, Virginia, on January 23, 1781. Baron von Steuben was away, so he gave Greene’s letters (January 11 and two dated January 13) with all the news to von Steuben’s aide, who would “send them immediately.”27
6
THE CORPS OF ENGINEERS
Congress created the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, and two days later, the day before the Battle of Bunker Hill, it authorized one chief engineer and two assistants, as well as one chief engineer and two assistants “in a separate department,” commissioned in the grades of colonel and captain, respectively. Congress also resolved on January 16, 1776, “That if General Washington think proper Col. R. Gridley be continued chief engineer in the army at Cambridge.”1
It soon became apparent that the army needed experienced engineers, and they looked to France, where the Corps of Engineers was very honorable and from which different European powers sought officers. Congress instructed its ministers to France, Silas Deane and Benjamin Franklin, to “secure skilled engineers, not exceeding four,” who might serve in the Continental Army, and to solicit material assistance. The commissioners made an agreement with the four selected men to advance them one degree from the rank they held at home, but when they arrived in America, they found their situation was very different with respect to officers in all other corps. They saw, for example, a major of artillery exalted four ranks, as a chief. They reported these circumstances and appealed to the equity of Congress, but Congress was too busy to consider creating a Corps of Engineers.
1777
Washington’s plans for 1777 included a request for an organized Corps of Engineers. On December 27, 1776, Congress authorized him “to raise and collect a corps of engineers and to establish their pay” for a period of six months, but the shortage of proficient engineers prevented him from taking any action on this resolution. Congress resolved on July 8, 1777, “That the treaty made by the Commissioners in France on the 13th day of February last, be confirmed as far as it respects the chevalier du Portail, monsieur de la Radière, and monsieur du Gouvion; the first to be a colonel, the second a lieutenant-colonel, and the third a major of engineers.”2 These officers were from the Royal Corps of Engineers in the French army. The war attracted them and other educated military engineers to this country. As no regulations had yet been made regarding cavalry or engineers, these French engineers received five months’ pay as infantrymen, which did not even cover the expenses of their voyage.
Around January 18, 1778, Duportail submitted a proposal to the commander in chief to supplement the engineer officers with companies of combat engineers and called them companies of sappers and miners, according to European custom. The sappers dug the entrenchments (saps) for a formal siege; the miners constructed underground tunnels. These companies, which Duportail felt should become a permanent part of the Continental Army, could execute small projects or supervise infantry details in more extensive undertakings:
I would desire to have three Companies of Sappers formed—they should be instructed in every thing that relates to the construction of Field works—how to dispose of the Earth to cut the Slopes—face with Turf or Sods—make fascines—arrange them properly—cut and fix Palisades &ct.
The Sappers should be distributed in the different works, and a sufficient number of fatigue men drawn from the line should be joined to them to work under their direction, by which means the work would be executed with a perfection and celerity which otherwise will ever be unknown in this army—it is, I believe, altogether useless to enlarge upon a matter so obvious—I proceed therefore immediately to the principal Conditions on which the Corps should be formed.
The corps should be formed on the following principles:
The pay ought to be greater than that of the ordinary foot soldier, as is the practice in Europe, because the service is exceedingly hard. They should also receive extraordinary pay, when they work and vigorous soldiers should be selected with preference given to Carpenters and Masons.
The non-commissioned officers should all be able to read and write and be intelligent persons of good characters.
The companies of sappers should be under the command of the head engineer.
The captains of sappers will be charged with the detail of their companies and each of them will be accountable to the commanding officer of the engineers, in order that he may always know the state of the companies, their strength etc.
Each company should always have its tools with it, carried in a wagon provided for the purpose. The company should be answerable for all tools lost and, in case any should be broken, the pieces are to be produced to the officer to whom the detail of the company is committed.
The camp of the sappers is to be assigned by the commanding officer of the engineers adjacent to the place where they are to be employed.
Of the Officers.
If it is important to choose the Privates in these Companies, it is much more so to choose the Officers. The Congress ought in my opinion to think of forming Engineers in this Country to replace us when we shall be call’d home—The Companies of Sappers now proposed might serve as a School to them—they might there acquire at once the practical part of the Construction of Works—and if choice be made of young men well bred, intelligent and fond of Instruction, we shall take pleasure in giving them principles upon the choice of Situations, and the method of adapting works to the ground.3
Duportail recommended speedy execution of the plan, if approved, so the companies could serve their apprenticeship before the opening of the campaign. He also noted that four engineers were not suffi
cient because one, and sometimes two, is always detached.
1778
Duportail made further recommendations to General Washington in an undated letter docketed “Feby 1778”:
1° in all europa the pay of engineers is higher than that of all other officers, besides a particular traitement is allowed to them in time of war; in france it is more Considerable than their appointements. that is founded on several reasons and between them on the hardship of their service wich obliges them to be perpetually running about, in Consequence of it they Cannot often live with the same means wich may be found in Camp. therefore they are put to Charge of a good deal of expense.
2° each engineer even being only Capitaine wants two horses one for him and another for a servant who attends him where he may be detached. but every body Knows that the Continental horses are extremely bad, Consequenty unfit for our service; therefore we must provide with, but they are so dear that our appointments whatever may be Cannot afford for that purchase.
i ask sr pleases to the honourable Congres to grant us the necessary money, according the account here after.
to Lieut. Col. [Jean-Baptiste de] gouvion and major villefranche two horses for every one.
to Colonels La radiere et laumoy for three horses.4
Duportail did not await a response to this memorial, as he was aware of the responsibilities that would be required of the engineers in future combat. He created a school of engineering to start the next campaign on a good footing. Gouvion undertook the administration and could instruct the corps in a rigorous and homogeneous manner.
Duportail frequently broached Congress about creating a Corps of Engineers, and Washington continued to exert pressure, but the topic never received serious consideration. Congress approved the formation of three companies on May 27, 1778, but the army moved slowly, and Washington appointed officers only on August 2, 1779, after Duportail personally interviewed the candidates. Washington transferred the carefully selected enlisted men from infantry regiments a year later.
1779
Corps of Engineers Established
Congress resolved to formally establish a Corps of Engineers on March 11, 1779:
that the engineers in the service of the United States shall be formed into a corps, styled the “corps of engineers,” and shall take rank and enjoy the same rights, honours, and privileges, with the other troops on continental establishment. That a Commandant of the Corps of Engineers shall be appointed by Congress, to whom their orders or those of the Commander-in-Chief shall be addressed, and such Commandant shall render to the Commander-in-Chief, and to the Board of War, an account of every matter relative to his department.5
This legislation gave the engineers the status of a branch of the Continental Army with the same pay and prerogatives as artillerymen to prevent any jealousy between the technical branches. It also formed three companies, each with a captain, three lieutenants, four sergeants, four corporals, and sixty privates.
After preparing the plan to rearrange the engineer corps, the Board of War recommended Congress promote Jean-Bernard Gauthier de Murnan to the rank of major in the corps. Congress took no action until January 13, 1779, when it appointed Murnan a major in the Corps of Engineers “to take rank as such from the 1st day of March last, and to receive pay and subsistence from the 1st day of February last, the latter being the time he was employed by Brigadier du Portail, and the former the time he was directed by the Commander-in-Chief to act as major.”6
Commandant
Brigadier General Duportail was appointed commandant of the Corps of Engineers the following May 11. The corps would also include companies of sappers and miners. Congress brevetted several of its officers, and its chief was promoted to the grade of major general on November 16, 1781, “in consideration of his meritorious services, and particularly of his distinguished conduct in the siege of York, in the State of Virginia.”7 The records include the names of one brigadier general, six colonels, eight lieutenant colonels, three majors, and ten captains, but the list is most likely incomplete.
The officers of the Corps of Engineers were very dissatisfied with Congress’s September 2, 1776, decision of limiting command of engineer officers, in contravention of the then Articles of War. They also complained that officers of equal rank refused to take orders from them and that many of the men and some of the officers used foul language in their regard and abused their servants. As their memorial to Mr. Thomas Jefferson, the president of Congress, received no reply, the whole corps determined to resign their commissions, but Colonel Williams and Major Wadsworth were the only field officers then in the corps who actually resigned.
Corps of Sappers and Miners
General Washington wrote to the Board of War on February 26, 1779, to notify them that General Duportail would revise his plan for the Corps of Sappers and Miners to include amendments that Washington thought proper. He forwarded the revised plan to the Board of War the following day, along with his remarks, after speaking with General Duportail about them. The Board of War approved the plan and sent it back to Washington on April 1 with remarks from Congress for his approval before printing the plan.8
Congress approved an Act for the Pay and Subsistence of Engineers, Sappers, and Miners on May 11, 1779, and General Duportail’s title was changed to commandant of the Corps of Engineers and Sappers and Miners to reflect his additional responsibilities.9 Officers (three captains, three first lieutenants, and three second lieutenants) interested in taking commissions in the Company of Sappers and Miners were urged to apply to Duportail; post the necessary qualifications, such as their knowledge of practical geometry and drawing; and give their names at the adjutant general’s office.10
Washington wrote to Duportail on July 27, 1779, ordering him to “make an arrangement of the officers who have presented themselves for appointments in the companies of Sappers and Miners, which I will transmit to the Board of war to obtain their commissions.”11 Until more men could be recruited, he suspended the formation of companies of sappers and miners because the numerous drafts from the line for different purposes would make it inconvenient to take out others to form these companies. He also offered a “bounty of two hundred dollars is to be given to each man who shall enlist during the war, and twenty dollars to the officer as a gratuity for every man so enlisted.”12
Recruiting
Consequently, Congress authorized the recruiting of engineers from the various colonies. General Duportail then proceeded to prepare for their recruitment, as can be seen in his letter to Joseph Reed, president of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, on September 10, 1779:
Congress some time since ordered the formation of three Companies of sappers and miners, of which they were pleased to honor me with the Command. The soldiers for these Companies were originally to be drafted from the line, but his excellency, general washington, finding some inconveniency in doing it at this time prefers their being raised. In Consequence he has written to Congress praying them to recommend it to the different states, to permit this levy, which Recommendation your excellency will probably receive. I therefore send Captain Mc Murray into your state to recruit for these Companies and I intreat that you will be pleased to give the business all the aid of which it may stand in need.
Cap. McMurray has the regulations made by Congress for these Companies. I dare pray you to have the goodness to run them over and you will see what is to be their service and their instruction; you will see that the officers are to have the means of acquiring all the knowledge necessary to engineers, and that the soldiers will learn to Construct all the works relative to fortifications. May I therefore be permitted to observe that it would be very advantageous to the state of pensilvania to furnish a number of these soldiers who, returning into their own Country after being instructed, may be of the greatest utility to it. As I flatter myself your excellency will judge of it in the same manner, and your eagerness to form every kind of establishment useful to the state which you govern is
well known, I take the liberty to propose to you the formation of one of these Companies of sappers and miners, to belong to the state itself. This plan has been mentioned to general washington and met his approbation in that case. As there are two vacancies in the Company of Mr. McMurray they Could be granted to two gentlemen of the state of pensilvania for this purpose; if your excellency should be acquainted with any gentlemen disposed to embrace this profession and proper for it, I should esteem it a favor you would send them to me for examination. The qualities necessary for the officers of sappers and miners are in the first place a good education in general, which will be a security for the integrity of their sentiments.
It must be Considered that these officers becoming Engineers and so in a situation to have in their hands the plans of the frontiers of the fortifications, the memorials concerning them, in a word all that has relation to the defence of the state, they ought to be qualified to inspire great Confidence in their fidelity and in their attachment to their Country; in the next place it is proper they should have some mathematical Knowledge—the more they have the better; but we may not exact a great deal from young men who do not exceed the age of twenty, who besides have had a good education, possess a fund of intelligence and show an inclination to instruct themselves, they may be the easier dispensed with, as there will be a master of mathematics attached to the Companies, and they will be furnished with regard to this object with all the means to supply the defects of their education.13
Washington's Engineer Page 15