The Politics of Aristotle

by Aristotle

  3 · Signs of Courage are—coarse hair; an upright carriage of the body; size and strength of bones, sides and extremities; the belly broad and flat; shoulder-blades [35] broad and set well apart, neither too closely nor too loosely knit; a sturdy neck, not very fleshy; a chest well covered with flesh and broad; flat hips; the thickness of the calf low down the leg; gleaming eyes, neither wide and staring nor [807b1] yet mere slits, and not glistening; the body of a brilliant hue; a forehead straight and lean, not large, and neither quite smooth nor yet a mass of wrinkles. Signs of Cowardice are—a small growth of soft hair; the figure stooping and lacking in [5] quickness; the thickness of the calf high up the leg; a sallow complexion; weak blinking eyes; weak extremities; little legs,7 and hands long and delicate; loins small and weak; a rigid gesture of the body; with undecided, deprecating, scared [10] movements, and a shifty downcast look.

  Good natural parts are indicated by rather moist and tender flesh, not exactly firm nor yet extremely fat; by leanness of the shoulders, neck, face, and neighbouring regions; by shoulder-blades closely knit and the parts below slack; by supple [15] sides; a somewhat gaunt back; a clear pinkish hue over the body; a thin skin; a small growth of hair, neither very coarse nor very black; and moist, gleaming eyes. Dullness of sense is indicated when the region of the neck and the legs are fleshy [20] and stiffly fitted and knitted; the hip-joint round; the shoulder-blades high-set; the forehead big, round, and fleshy; the eyes pale and vacant; the legs thick and fleshy and round at the ankles; the jaws big and fleshy; loins fleshy; legs long; neck [25] thick-set; the face fleshy and rather long. The manner of movement, gesture, and facial expression of the dull man, you may take it, are analogous to his character.

  Impudence is signified by small, bright, wide-open eyes, with heavy blood-shot lids slightly bulging;8 high shoulder-blades; a carriage of the body not erect, but [30] crouched slightly forwards; quickness of movement; a reddish hue over the body; with a sanguine complexion, a round face, and high chest. Signs of Propriety are—a slow gait; a slow way of speaking with a breath-like and weak voice; small eyes, [35] black but not lustrous, not open and staring, nor yet mere slits; with a slow, blinking movement of the lids—for rapid blinking signifies either cowardice or a hot [808a1] temperament.

  Good Spirits are indicated by a good-sized forehead, fleshy and smooth; the region of the eyes rather low; a rather drowsy-looking countenance, neither keen nor reflective. The gait, we may suppose, will be slow and languid, the gesture and [5] facial expression those of a good but not a quick man. Signs of Low Spirits are—lean and wrinkled brows; drooping eyes (but you should notice that drooping eyes may signify softness and effeminacy as well as dejection and low spirits); a [10] meek bearing and weary gait.

  The Effeminate is drooping-eyed and knock-kneed; his head hangs on his right shoulder; his hands are carried upturned and flabby; and as he walks he either wags his loins or else holds them rigid by an effort; and he casts a furtive gaze around, for [15] all the world like Dionysius the Sophist.

  Surliness is indicated by a snarling grin; a black complexion and withered skin; a gaunt, wrinkled face and the neighbouring regions furrowed with lines; and by straight black hair.

  Men of Fierce Temper bear themselves erect, are broad about the ribs and [20] move with an easy gait; their bodies are of a reddish hue, their shoulder-blades set well apart, large and broad; there extremities large and powerful; they are smooth about the chest and groin; they have great beards, and the hair of the head starts low down with a vigorous growth.

  Those of a Gentle disposition are robust-looking, well covered with plenty of [25] moist flesh; well-sized men and well-proportioned; carrying themselves with head thrown back; and their hair starts rather higher up on the head than is usual.

  The Sly man is fat about the face, with wrinkles round his eyes, and he wears a drowsy expression.

  [30] The Small-Minded have small limbs and small, delicate, lean bodies, small eyes and small faces, just like a Corinthian or Leucadian.

  Men addicted to Gaming have short arms, like weasels, and are dancers.

  Abusive men have the upper lip updrawn; they tend to lean forwards, and their hue is reddish.

  The Compassionate are delicate, pale, and lustrous-eyed: the top of their noses [35] is furrowed with lines, and they are always weeping. Such men are fond of women and beget female children, and in character they are erotic and mindful of the past, with good natural parts and a fervid temper. The signs of these qualities have [808b1] already been mentioned. Compassion goes with wisdom, with cowardice, and with propriety, hardness of heart with stupidity and effrontery.

  Gluttony is indicated when the distance from navel to chest is greater than that from chest to neck.

  Lasciviousness is indicated by a pale complexion, a heavy growth of straight, [5] thick, black hair over the body, a heavy growth of straight hair on the temples, and small, lustrous, lewd eyes.

  In the Somnolent the upper parts are disproportionately large: such men are vulture-like9 and hot, and their flesh is firm.

  Loquacity is indicated by disproportionate size of the upper parts, with a round delicate build, and a thick growth of hair about the belly.

  A Good Memory is signified when the upper parts are disproportionately [10] small, and are delicate and tolerably well covered with flesh.

  4 · Soul and body, as it seems to me, are affected sympathetically by one another: on the one hand, an alteration of the state of the soul produces an alteration in the form of the body, and contrariwise an alteration in bodily form produces an [15] alteration in the state of soul. Grief and joy, to take an instance, are states of the soul, and every one knows that grief involves a gloomy and joy a cheerful countenance. Now if it were the case that the external expression persisted after the soul had got rid of these emotions, we might still say that soul and body are in sympathy, but their sympathetic changes would not be entirely concomitant. As a [20] matter of fact, however, it is obvious that every modification of the one involves a modification of the other. The best instance of this is to be found in manic insanity. Mania, it is generally allowed, is a condition of the soul, yet doctors cure it partly by administering purgative drugs to the body, partly by prescribing, besides these, certain courses of diet. Thus the result of proper treatment of the body is that they succeed, and that too simultaneously, not only in altering the physical condition, but also in curing the soul of mania; and the fact that the changes are simultaneous proves that the sympathetic modifications of body and soul are thoroughly [25] concomitant.

  It is equally indisputable that differences in the soul’s capacities are represented by corresponding physical traits, so that all the resemblances in animals are indicative of some identity.

  Again, if we consider the behaviour of animals, we find that some affections of [30] the soul are peculiar to particular genera, whilst others are common to several, and that the peculiar activities are accompanied by peculiar, the common by common, physical traits. Examples of common characters are insolence, which is found in all animals with bushy tails, and violent sexual excitability, which is found alike in [35] asses and in pigs: whilst on the other hand railing is a character peculiar to dogs, and insensibility to pain is peculiar to the ass. I have already explained how common and peculiar characters are to be distinguished. [809a1]

  At the same time it is only by long and wide experience that one can hope for oneself to attain detailed and expert understanding of these matters. For not only are visible characteristics of the body to be referred for explanation, as we are told, to analogies drawn partly from animals, partly from modes of action, but there are [5] other external traits which depend on the varying proportions of bodily heat and cold; and to add to the difficulty, some of these traits are very much alike and have not got distinctive names, as is the case e.g. with the paleness that results from terror and the paleness due to fatigue—for these have the same name and differ [10] only slightly from one another. Now when t
he difference is so slight, it can hardly be discerned except by those whom practice has taught to appreciate the congruity of different shades of expression with different conditions of mind, and so the argument from congruity leads to the quickest and soundest conclusions, and enables us to distinguish minute differences. It is a method generally useful, and [15] particularly in the selection of physiognomic signs, for the signs selected must be congruous with what they stand for.

  Deduction also should be used in the selection of signs, whenever possible. In the deductive procedure we attach to our data known attributes of them. For [20] instance, if we have it given that a man is an impudent and niggling, we can add that he will be a thief and a miser, the one as a consequence of his effrontery, the other as a consequence of his niggardliness. In all such cases we ought to include the deductive method in our procedure. [25]

  5 · I will now first attempt to make a division of animals by the marks in which they are bound to differ if they are respectively brave or timorous, upright or dishonest. We have to divide the whole animal kingdom for this purpose into two physical types, male and female, and to show what mental attributes are congruous with each of these types. In all beasts that we try to breed the female is tamer and [30] gentler in disposition than the male, less powerful, more easily reared and more manageable. One may conclude from this that the female has a less spirited temper, and I think we find a parallel to this in ourselves, for when we are mastered by a fit [35] of temper we become more obstinate and totally intractable; we grow headstrong and violent and do whatever our temper impels us to do. Further, the female is, in my opinion, more mischievous than the male, and (though feebler) more reckless. [809b1] Every one can see that this is so in women and in domesticated animals, and according to the unanimous evidence of herdsmen and hunters it is no less true of the beasts of the field. Moreover, it is beyond dispute that in every genus the head of [5] the female is smaller than that of the male, her visage narrower, her neck thinner, her chest weaker, her sides of smaller build, and that, whilst her hips and thighs are fuller, she inclines to be knock-kneed, the lower parts of her legs are less stout, and [10] her feet more delicately made: in short, the build of her body is more pleasing to the eye and softer rather than imposing, and she is in comparison feeble and tender, and of moister tissue. The male is the opposite of all this:10 his is the braver and more upright nature, whilst the female is the more timid and less upright.

  [15] This being so, the lion manifestly exhibits the male type in its most perfect form. He has a good-sized mouth: his visage is square and not too bony, the upper jaw level with the lower and not protruding: his nose you would call, if anything, rather thick: his gleaming eyes are deep-set, and neither absolutely round nor [20] unduly long, and of moderate size:11 his brow is of the right size, his forehead square and slightly hollowed from the centre, and over its lower part towards the eyebrows and nose, there hangs a sort of cloud, and from the top of his forehead down to his nose there runs a ridge of hairs sloping outwards: his head is of moderate size: his [25] neck of due length and broad in proportion with a tawny mane upon it, which is neither stiff and bristly nor yet too closely curled. About the clavicles he is supple and not too tightly articulated: his shoulders are stalwart, his chest powerful, his trunk broad, with sides and back to match: there is no superfluity of flesh on his [30] haunches or thighs: his legs are powerful and sinewy, his gait vigorous, his whole frame well-knit and sinewy and neither too stiff nor too soft: he moves slowly with a large stride, rolling his shoulders as he goes. Such is his bodily appearance, and in [35] soul he is generous and liberal, proud and ambitious, yet gentle and just and affectionate to his comrades.

  The leopard, on the other hand, of all animals accounted brave, approximates more closely to the feminine type, save in its legs, which it uses to perform any feat [810a1] of strength. For its face is small, its mouth large, its eyes small and white, set in a hollow, but rather flat in themselves: its forehead is too long and tends to be curved rather than flat near the ears: its neck too long and thin: its chest narrow and its [5] back long: haunches and thighs fleshy: flanks and abdomen rather flat: its colour spotted: and its whole body ill-articulated and ill-proportioned. Such is its bodily aspect, and in soul it is mean and thievish, and in a word, a beast of low cunning.

  I have now described the more notable examples of the male and the female types of body to be found among animals accounted brave, and the characterization of the remainder will present no difficulty. I will next proceed to explain in a chapter on selection of signs what marks derived from animals the student of physiognomics should take into consideration.

  6 · The selection of signs with regard to men is as follows:

  A large and shapely foot, well-articulated and sinewy, is held to signify a [15] strong character. For evidence we are referred to the male sex in general. A small, narrow, ill-articulated foot, pretty but weak, signifies a soft character, as in the female sex. Curved toes are a sign of impudence, and so are curved nails, on the [20] evidence of birds with curved claws, whilst toes that are not properly divided indicate timidity, as in web-footed water-birds.

  Ankles sinewy and well-articulated mark a strong character, on the evidence [25] of the male sex; fleshy and ill-articulated ankles, a soft character, on the evidence of the female sex.

  When the lower leg is at once well-articulated and sinewy and stalwart, it signifies a strong character, as in the male sex: when it is thin and sinewy it signifies [30] salaciousness, as in birds. When it is full and almost bursting, it signifies by congruity blatant effrontery.

  Knock-knees are a sign of the effeminate, by congruity.

  Thighs bony and sinewy indicate a strong character, as in the male sex: but [35] when bony and full, a soft character, as in females.

  Buttocks pointed and bony are a mark of a strong character, fat fleshy [810b1] buttocks of a soft character, whilst lean buttocks which look as if they had been rubbed bare, are indicative of a mischievous disposition, as in apes.

  A narrow waist marks the hunter, as in the lion and the dog; and you will find [5] that the best hunting dogs also are narrow in the waist.

  A loose build round about the belly indicates strength of character, as in the male sex, whilst the opposite is by congruity indicative of a soft character. [10]

  A well-sized and sturdy back marks strength, and a narrow feeble back softness of character, as in males and females respectively.

  Strong sides indicate strength and weak sides softness, as in males and females respectively, whilst swollen inflated sides signify aimless loquacity, as in frogs. [15] When the distance from navel to the lower end of the breastbone exceeds that from the latter to the neck, it is a mark of gluttony and of dullness of sense, of gluttony because there is so large a receptacle of food, and of dull sense because the seat of [20] the senses is correspondingly confined and compressed by the receptacle of food, so that the senses have become stupefied by repletion of the stomach rather than, as is usual, by inanition.

  A large well-articulated chest signifies strength of character, as in males.

  When the upper part of the back is large and well covered with flesh and [25] well-knit, the character is strong, as in males: when it is feeble and gaunt and ill-knit, the character is soft, as in females. When it is very much bent and the shoulders fall in upon the chest, it is argued by congruity to signify a mischievous [30] disposition, since the front parts of the body, which ought to stand clear to view, become invisible. When it is curved backwards, it signifies vanity and lack of intelligence, as in the horse. So it must not be either convex or concave; and something intermediate between these extremes, therefore, should be looked for as marking a man of good natural parts.

  [35] When the shoulders and the back of the neck are well-articulated, they signify a strong character, whilst weak and ill-articulated shoulders signify a soft character, the reference being to the sexes, as I explained when speaking of feet and thighs. [811a1] Supple
shoulders signify liberality of soul, the argument being based on the external appearance, with which liberality seems to be congruous. On the other hand, stiff, clumsy shoulders indicate an illiberal disposition, also by congruity.

  [5] Suppleness of the clavicles signifies quickness of perception, for when the collar-bone is supple, stimulation of the senses is rendered easy. Contrariwise, a stiff collar-bone indicates dullness of sense, because then it is difficult to apprehend sense-stimuli.

  [10] A thick neck indicates a strong character, as in males: a thin neck, weakness, as in females: a neck thick and full, fierce temper, as in bulls: a well-sized neck, not [15] too thick, a proud soul, as in lions: a long, thin neck, cowardice, as in deer: an unduly short neck, a treacherous disposition, as in wolves.

  Lips thin and pendulous at their points of junction, such that part of the upper [20] lip overhangs the lower at the corners, signify pride of soul. The reference generally given is to the lion, but you may see the same thing as well in large and powerful breeds of dogs. Lips thin and hard with a prominence about the eye-teeth12 are a sign of base breeding, on the evidence of swine. Thick lips, with the upper [25] overhanging the lower, mean folly, as in the ass and the ape. Projecting upper lip and gums mark the abusive, on the evidence of dogs.