by Aristotle
A grey colour will occur where the ground is exceedingly hot; here there will be little moisture and the ducts will become narrow, and when nature wishes to bring about concoction it will not have sufficient moisture to supply the nutritive material [20] and the ducts will become narrow. The process of concoction therefore will be reversed and the heat will cause it to continue, and the plant will be seen to have a colour intermediate between white and black. When this happens it will have black wood or anything like it between white and ebony, that is, any of the whole range of [25] colours from that of ebony to that of elm;16 and so such wood sinks in water because its parts are compact and the ducts in it are narrow, and no air enters into them. When white wood sinks the reason will be the narrowness of the ducts and the [30] presence of superfluous moisture, which blocks up the ducts so that the air does not enter; consequently it sinks. Every flower is composed only of rarefied material when concoction first begins; and so the flower generally precedes the fruit in plants. We have already shown why it is that plants produce their leaves before their fruits. In the case of plants which have slender parts the colour of the flower will [35] resemble a bright blue; when the parts are not closely compressed, it will tend to whiteness; under medium conditions it will be a blue-grey. The absence of flowers in certain plants is usually due to the solidity of their parts or their rarity or their roughness or thickness. The palm and similar trees therefore have no flowers.
[829a1] A plant which has thick bark expands owing to the pressure of moisture and the impelling force of heat; we see this in the pine and palm. A plant which gives [5] forth a milky juice will have such juice within it; there will be powerful heat within and an oily substance will be present there. When the heat begins to cause concoction, the oily substance will be turned into moisture, and the heat will solidify it to a slight extent, and local warmth will be caused, and an oily liquid will be produced similar to milk, and vapour will rise from the moisture which attracts the [10] milky substance into the extremities of the plant, and the moisture will retain the heat which appears. The milky substance will not be solidified, because it is the function of heat to solidify it and any milk requires a great deal of solidification. If there is cold present in the tree, the milky substance will solidify when it has left its [15] original position in the tree, and the result will be the formation of gum. Gum comes out warm from the tree by distillation, and, when it comes into contact with the air, it will solidify. Some gums flow in temperate places, and these will be of the consistency of water; others flow out and solidify as hard as stone or shell. Gum [20] which flows drop by drop keeps its form, as in the tree which is known as aletafur. The gum which changes into a stony substance will be very cold on its first appearance, and its appearance will be caused by heat, and when it has flowed out it will turn to stone; it will occur where the soil is very hot. Some trees undergo a [25] change in the winter and will become sometimes green and sometimes blue-grey, and neither their leaves nor their fruits decay; for trees in which this occurs have a great quantity of heat and rarefied water in their lower reservoirs. Thus as the year [30] goes on this water will retain its heat on account of the coldness of the air; and because the heat goes out to the cold, it carries the moisture out with it, and the moisture tinctures it with the colour of heat, and therefore the colour is seen in the appearance of the tree. Consequently cold and heat are converted into activity, and [35] the moisture retains heat, and therefore another colour makes its appearance.
10 · Fruit will be bitter because the heat and moisture have not completed the process of concoction (cold and dryness hindering the completion of this process), and so fruit turns bitter. This is indicated by the fact that what is bitter, when put into fire, becomes sweet. Trees which grow in sour water produce sweet [829b1] fruit, because the sourness assisted by the heat of the sun attracts that which is of its own quality, namely, cold and dryness. Sweet liquids therefore make their appearance inside the tree, and the innermost part of the tree becomes hot when the sun shines continuously above it, and the flavour of the fruit will be successively [5] sour, and then, when the process of concoction has taken place, the sourness will be gradually dissolved until it disappears, and sweetness will make its appearance. Consequently the fruit will be sweet, while the leaves and extremities of the tree will be acid. When the maturation is complete, the fruit will be bitter: this is due to a superfluity of heat with very little moisture. The moisture is used up and the fruit [10] makes the heat rise, and so the fruit will be bitter, and the stones in the fruit will be pyramidal in form on account of the upward attraction of the heat and the downward attraction of the cold and moisture which are of the same nature as sour [15] water; and the moisture remains in the trunk of the tree, which consequently thickens, while its extremities are thin. If trees are planted in temperate soil, they reach maturity quickly before the days of spring, because, when the heat is almost temperate and the moisture has made its appearance and the air is clear, the fruit [20] will not require much heat during the process of concoction. Consequently maturity comes quickly and takes place before the days of spring. Bitterness or harshness of flavour is prevalent in all trees when they are first planted. The reason is that when [25] the moisture is in their extremities and has concocted the parts that are in the middle of the tree, from which the material of the fruit comes, the dryness comes forth and follows the moisture, and the first concoction will be sour or bitter or harsh. The reason is that the concoction takes place in the heat and moisture, and [30] when moisture or dryness prevails over the heat, the fruit so produced will not at first have undergone proper concoction, and consequently the production of fruit is at first without sweetness.
The fruit of the bennut-tree when it first appears is sweet, but subsequently becomes harsh in flavour and finally bitter. The reason for this is that the tree has [35] excessive rarity in it, and at the time of concoction, when the ducts are wide, the heat will follow the moisture and will cause the fruit to mature; consequently the fruit will be sweet at first. Subsequently the heat attracts the dryness which resembles its own nature, and will cause the ducts to contract, and cold and dryness [40] will prevail over heat and moisture; the fruit, therefore, will change to a harsh flavour. Next, the sun with its heat will prevail through the attraction of [830a1] superfluous17 moisture in the seed, which is present at the first appearance of the tree, and the cold will prevail over the dryness; the fruit will therefore become exceedingly harsh in flavour. Next, the natural heat will rise upwards, and the heat [830b1] of the sun outside will assist it; therefore the heat and dryness will prevail, and the fruit will become bitter.
**TEXT. J. Bussemaker, Aristotelis Opera Omnia, Vol. IV, Firmin-Didot, Paris, 1878
1Omitting constaret enim.
2See Timaeus 77AC.
3Reading habeat.
4Omitting sicut diximus.
5Reading dicunt alii for dicit lechineon
6Reading semen, et fructus quidam.
7The next sentence is unintelligible: et corpus cadens aere abiciente ipsum propter causam.
8Reading ilia.
9Reading ut tela.
10Reading cohaereant.
11Reading ideo for idem.
12Reading mergunt.
13Reading fila.
14Reading inundabit.
15This sentence occurs in the MSS after ‘have grown’, in line 10.
16Reading ulmum.
17Reading superfluae.
ON MARVELLOUS THINGS HEARD**
L. D. Dowdall
[830a5] 1 · Men say that in Paeonia, on the mountain called Hesaenus, which forms the boundary between the Paeonian and Maedian districts, there is found a wild beast, which is called Bolinthos, but by the Paeonians is named Monaepos. They state that this in its general nature is similar to the ox, but surpasses it in size and [10] strength, and moreover is distinguished from it by its mane; for like the horse it has a mane hanging down very thick from the neck, and from the crown of the head as
far as the eyes. It has horns, not such as oxen have, but bent downwards, the tip [15] being low down near the ears; and these severally contain more than three pints, and are very black, and shine as though they were peeled; and when the hide is stripped off it occupies a space capable of containing eight couches. When the animal is struck with a weapon it flees, and only stops when it is quite exhausted. Its flesh has an agreeable taste. It defends itself by kicking, and voiding excrement over [20] a distance of about twenty-four feet. It easily and frequently employs this kind of defence, and the excretion burns so severely that the hair of the dogs is scraped off. They say, however, that the excrement produces this effect only when the animal is disturbed, but when it is undisturbed it does not burn. When they bring forth young, assembling in larger numbers and being all gathered closely together, the full-grown ones bring forth, and void excrement as a defence round their young; for the animal discharges a large quantity of this excretion.
[830b5] 2 · The camels in Arabia, they say, do not copulate with their mothers, but that even if someone tries to force them they are unwilling. For it is said that once, when there was no stallion present, a keeper disguised the mother and set her foal on [10] her. And the foal, it seems, finished its task then, but a little later bit the keeper and killed him.
3 · Men say that the cuckoos in Helice, when about to breed, do not build a nest, but lay their eggs in the nests of ring-doves or turtle-doves, and neither sit on their eggs, nor hatch them, nor rear their young; but when the chick is born and reared, it expels its companions from the nest. Moreover, it appears, it grows large [15] and beautiful, so that it easily overcomes the rest. They say that the ring-doves also take such a delight in it that they even assist it to drive out their own young.
4 · The she-goats in Crete, when they are shot with arrows, seek, it would [20] appear, for the dittany, which grows there; for as soon as they have eaten it, they straightway expel the arrows from their bodies.
5 · Men say that some of the stags in Achaea, when they have shed their horns, proceed to places of such a kind that they cannot be easily found; and that they act in this way because they have no means of defence, and also because the [831a1] parts from which they have shed their horns give them pain; and it is stated that, in the case of many of these animals, ivy is seen growing in the place of the horns.
6 · Men say that in Armenia a certain poison grows, which is called leopard’s bane. So, when a leopard is seen, they anoint a victim with this, and let it go. When [5] the leopard touches it, she goes, it would appear, in quest of human excrement. Therefore the hunters put excrement in a vessel, and suspend it from a tree, so that the leopard, by leaping up towards it and becoming exhausted, may be paralysed by it, and fall into their power. [10]
7 · Men say that in Egypt the sandpipers fly into the mouths of the crocodiles, and clean their teeth, pulling out the pieces of flesh, which stick in their snouts, while the crocodiles are pleased, and do them no harm.
8 · Men say that the hedgehogs in Byzantium perceive when north or south [15] winds are blowing, and immediately change their holes; and, when the winds are southerly, make their holes opening out of the ground, but, when they are northerly, out of the walls.
9 · The she-goats in Cephallenia do not drink, as it appears, like other quadrupeds; but daily turning their faces towards the sea, open their mouths, and [20] take in the breezes.
10 · They say that in Syria one of the wild donkeys leads the herd, and that when one of the younger foals mounts a female the leader gets angry and chases him until he catches him; and then, ducking down to his back legs, he tears off his [25] genitals with his teeth.
11 · Men say that tortoises, when they have eaten part of a viper, eat marjoram as an antidote, and, if the creature fails to find it at once, it dies; that many of the countryfolk, wishing to prove whether this is true, whenever they see it acting in this manner, pluck up the marjoram, and when they have done so, the [30] tortoise is presently seen dying.
[831b1] 12 · They say that the penis of the marten is not like that of the other animals, but is always stiff like a bone, whatever state the marten may be in. They say that it is one of the best drugs for strangury and is given in powdered form.
[5] 13 · Men say that the bird called the woodpecker climbs upon the trees like lizards, both hanging from and standing on the branches. It is further stated that it feeds upon the grubs out of the trees, and digs so deeply into the trees, in its search for the grubs, that it even brings the trees down.
[10] 14 · Men say that the pelicans dig up the mussels that are found in the rivers, and swallow them; then, when they have devoured a large quantity of these, they vomit them up again, and thereupon eat the meat of the mussels, but do not touch the shells.
15 · Men say that in Cyllene in Arcadia the blackbirds are born white, [15] which happens nowhere else, and that they give utterance to various sounds, and go forth by the light of the moon; but that, if any one should attempt to capture them by day, they are caught with great difficulty.
16 · It is stated by certain persons that what is called flower-honey is [20] produced in Melos and Knidos, and that, while fragrant in smell, it lasts for only a short time; and that in it bee-bread is produced.
17 · In some parts of Cappadocia they say that the honey is made without a honey-comb, and that in consistency it resembles olive-oil.
18 · At Trapezus in Pontus the honey gathered from the box-tree is [25] produced, having an oppressive smell, and they say that this drives out of their senses those who are sound in mind, while it completely cures those who suffer from epilepsy.
19 · Men say that in Lydia also the honey is gathered from the trees in abundance, and that the inhabitants form out of it balls without wax, and cutting [30] off portions by very violent rubbing make use of it. It is produced indeed in Thrace likewise, not so solid, but as it were of a sandy nature. They say that all honey when [832a1] congealed preserves an equal volume, not like water and all other liquids.
20 · The grass of Chalcis and almonds are most useful for making honey; for they say that a very large quantity is produced by them.
21 · People say that bees are stupefied by unguents, and are unable to [5] endure the smell of them; while some say that they especially sting those who have been anointed.
22 · They say that among the Illyrians those who are called Taulantians make wine out of honey. When they have squeezed out the honey-combs, they pour water on the honey, and boil it in a caldron until half is consumed; then they pour it out into earthen jars, fill them half full, and lay them on boards; and on these they [10] say it ferments for a long time, and becomes like wine, while for the rest it is sweet and strong. But now they state that this mode of preparation was adopted also among some of the inhabitants of Greece, so that the drink did not differ from old wine, and that in later times, when they inquired into the method of mixing it, they were unable to discover it.
23 · They relate that in Thessaly once upon a time so large a number of serpents was bred alive that, if they had not been exterminated by the storks, the [15] inhabitants would have left the country. That is why they also honour the storks, and it is unlawful to kill them, and, if any one kills them, he becomes liable to the same penalties as a homicide.
24 · Likewise also it is related that there was once in Lacedaemon so great a multitude of serpents that the Lacedaemonians, owing to a scarcity of corn, used [20] them as food; whence also they say that the Pythian priestess called them ‘serpent-necked’.
25 · It is said that in the island of Gyaros the mice eat iron.
26 · Men say that among the Chalybians, in an islet situated beyond them, gold is collected by mice in large numbers: that is why also, as it appears, they cut up those that are found in the mines. [25]
27 · It is said that travellers going from Susa to Media meet with an immense multitude of scorpions at the second stage. So the King of the Persians, whenever he was passing through the place,
remained there for three days, ordering all his men to hunt them down; and he gave a prize to him who caught the greatest number. [30]
28 · Men say that in Cyrene there is not merely one sort of mouse, but several kinds differing both in forms and in colours; for some are broad-faced, like [832b1] weasels, and some like hedgehogs, which they call ‘hedgehogs’.
29 · In Cilicia they say that there is a whirlpool, in which birds, and animals besides, that have been suffocated, when immersed come to life again. [5]
30 · Among the Scythians who are called Geloni, they say that there is a certain wild animal, excessively rare indeed, which is named Tarandos. Now this is said to change the colour of its hair, according to the place in which it may be; and [10] for this reason it is hard to catch; for it becomes in colour like to trees and places, and its surroundings generally. But the most wonderful thing is its changing its hair; [15] for other animals change the colour of the skin, such as the chameleon and octopus. In size it resembles an ox, while the form of its face is like that of a stag.
31 · It is said that a certain man in Abydos being deranged in mind, and going to the theatre on many days looked on (as though actors were performing a [20] play), and applauded; and, when he was restored to his senses, he declared that that was the happiest time he had ever spent.
32 · Moreover they say that at Tarentum a certain wine-merchant was mad at night, but sold his wines during the day: he also kept the key of the cellar attached to his belt, and though many tried to steal it from him and get possession of it, he [25] never lost it.