9. Hermann von Helmholtz, “The Perception of Vision,” in Treatise on Physiological Optics, vol. 3, ed. J. P. C. Southall (New York: The Optical Society of America, 1876), 28.
10. For an overview, see Stefan Weis, “Subliminal Emotion Perception in Brain Imaging: Findings, Issues, and Recommendations,” in Understanding Emotion, ed. S. Anders, G. Ende, M. Junghofer, J. Kissler, and D. Wildgruber (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2006), 105–21.
11. Joseph LeDoux, Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are (New York: Penguin, 2002). See also Joseph LeDoux, “Afterword: Emotional Construction in the Brain,” in The Psychological Construction of Emotion, ed. L. F. Barrett and J. A. Russell (New York: The Guilford Press, 2014), 459–63.
12. K. V. Hindriks and J. Broekens, “Comparing Formal Cognitive Emotion Theories,” Delft University of Technology, 2011, www.lorentzcenter.nl>web>Hindriks/.
13. Jesse Prinz, Gut Reactions: A Perceptual Theory of Emotion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 50.
14. John Cleland, Fanny Hill: Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure (Ware, Hertsfordshire: Wordsworth Editions, 2000), 14.
15. Margaret Cavendish, Observations upon Experimental Philosophy, ed. Eileen O’Neill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 209.
16. “Letter 52” in The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess: 1887–1904, ed. Jeffrey Masson (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1985), 112.
17. Sigmund Freud, From the History of an Infantile Neurosis (1918), Standard Edition, vol. 17, 7–122.
18. Gerald Edelman and Giulio Tononi, A Universe of Consciousness: How Matter Becomes Imagination (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 101.
19. Henry James, The Painter’s Eye: Notes and Essays on the Pictorial Arts (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1956), 185.
20. William James, The Principles of Psychology, vol. 2 (New York: Dover Publications, 1950), 672.
21. John Dewey, Art as Experience, in The Collected Works of John Dewey, vol. 10, ed. Jo Ann Boydston (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1987), 31.
22. Ibid., 219.
23. Ibid., 220.
24. See Steven Pinker, The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language (New York: William Morrow, 1994).
25. Mark C. Langston, Tom Traburro, and Joseph Magliano, “A Connectionist Model of Narrative Comprehension,” in Understanding Language Understanding: Computational Models of Reading, ed. Ashwin Ram and Kenneth Loorman (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1999), 182–83.
26. George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2003).
27. See V. Boulenger, O. Hauk, and F. Pulvermüller, “Grasping Ideas with the Motor System: Semantic Somotopy in Idiom Comprehension,” Cerebral Cortex 19 (2009): 1905–14; J. Yang and H. Shu, “Involvement of the Motor System in Comprehension of Non-Literal Action Language: A Meta-Analysis Study,” Brain Topography, doi: 10.1007/s10548-015-0427-5.
28. John Kaag, “The Neurological Dynamics of the Imagination,” Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences 8 (2008): 183–204.
29. Arthur Glenberg and Michael P. Kaschak, “Grounding Language in Action,” Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 9 (2002): 558–65.
30. Lisa Aziz-Zadeh and Antonio Damasio, “Embodied Semantics for Actions: Findings from Functional Brain Imaging,” Journal of Physiology-Paris 102 (2008): 35–39.
31. Maria Brincker, “The Aesthetic Stance: On the Conditions and Consequences of Becoming a Beholder,” in Aesthetics and the Embodied Mind: Beyond Art Theory and the Cartesian Mind-Body Dichotomy, ed. Alfonsina Scarinzi (Dordrecht: Springer, 2014), 117–38.
32. Ibid., 132.
33. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Phenomenology of Perception, 186.
34. Ibid., 193.
35. Susanne K. Langer, Philosophy in a New Key, 86.
36. Ibid., 227.
37. Susanne K. Langer, Feeling and Form (New York: Scribner’s & Sons, 1953), 220.
38. Robert E. Innis, Susanne Langer in Focus: The Symbolic Mind (Indianopolis: Indiana University Press, 2008), 142.
39. D. W. Winnicott, “The Location of Cultural Experience,” in Playing and Reality (London: Routledge, 1989), 96.
40. Massimo Ammaniti and Vittorio Gallese, The Birth of Intersubjectivity: Psychodynamics, Neurobiology, and the Self (New York: Norton, 2014), 5.
41. Ibid., 16.
42. M. Jabbi, J. Bastiaansen, and C. Keysers, “A Common Anterior Insula Representation of Disgust Observation, Experience and Imagination Shows Divergent Functional Connectivity Pathways,” PLoS ONE 3 (2008), doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002939.
43. Aristotle, The Poetics 14 (3–4), in The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation, vol. 2, ed. Jonathan Barnes (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984), 2326.
44. Antonio Damasio, “The Somatic Marker Hypothesis and the Possible Functions of the Prefrontal Cortex,” Philosophical Transcripts of the Royal Society London 351 (1996): 1413–20.
45. Tomas Jivanda, “Brain Function ‘Boosted for Days After Reading a Novel,’ ” The Independent, September 8, 2013.
46. Gregory S. Berns et al., “Short- and Long-Term Effects of a Novel on Connectivity in the Brain,” Brain Connectivity 3 (2013): 590–600.
Remembering in Art: The Horizontal and the Vertical
1. Søren Kierkegaard, Repetition, in Kierkegaard’s Writings, vol. 6, trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna Hong (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983), 149.
2. Catarina Suitner and Chris McManus, “Spatial Agency in Art,” in Spatial Dimensions in Thought, ed. Thomas W. Schubert and Anne Maass (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2011), 283.
3. Christian Dobel, Gil Diesendruck, and Jens Bölte, “How Writing System and Age Influence Spatial Representations of Actions: A Developmental, Cross-Linguistic Study,” Psychological Science 18, no. 6 (2007): 487–91.
4. Anne Maass et al., “Groups in Space: Stereotypes and the Spatial Agency Bias,” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45, no. 3 (2009): 495.
5. Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Visible and the Invisible Followed by Working Notes (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1968), 268.
6. See Eric Kandel, “The Biology of Memory: A Forty-Year Perspective,” The Journal of Neuroscience 29, no. 41 (2009): 12748–56.
7. For an account of unconscious perceptual inference in the work of Hermann von Helmholtz, the nineteenth-century biophysicist, see Gary Carl Hatfield, The Natural and the Normative: Theories of Spatial Perception from Kant to Helmholtz (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1990), 195–207.
8. Karl Friston, “The Free Energy Principle: A Unified Brain Theory?” Nature Reviews Neuroscience (2010), doi: 10.1038/nrn2787.
9. See Daniel J. Simons, “Current Approaches to Change Blindness,” Visual Cognition 7 (2000): 1–15.
10. Steven B. Most et al., “What You See Is What You Set: Sustained Inattentional Blindness and the Capture of Awareness,” Psychological Review 112, no. 1 (2005): 217–42.
11. Lawrence Weizkrantz, Blindsight: A Case Study and Its Implications (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986).
12. Roger Sperry, “Neurology and the Mind-Brain Problem,” American Scientist 40, no. 2 (1952): 292.
13. Melvin Goodale, “Acting Without Thinking: Separate Cortical Pathways for Visuomotor Control and Visual Perception,” www.csulb.edu/-cwallis/cscenter/hvr/abstracts/goodale.htlm. See also A. Milner and M. A. Goodale, “Two Visual Systems Re-Viewed,” Neuropsychologia 46, no. 3 (2008): 774–85.
14. A. R. Luria, Higher Cortical Functions in Man, 2nd ed., trans. Basil Haigh (New York: Basic Books, 1966), 293.
15. For an overview of the case, see Jenni A. Ogden, Fractured Minds: A Case Study Approach to Clinical Neuropsychology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 46–63. See also Larry R. Squire, “The Legacy of Patient H.M. for Neuroscience,” Neuron 61, no. 1 (2009): 6–9.
16. Charles Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (London: Appleton, 1873), 23.
17. David Freedberg and Vittorio Gallese, “Motion, Emotion and Empathy in Esthetic Experience,” Trends in Cognitive Science 11, no. 5 (2007): 197–203.
18. D. E. Merino et al., “Action Obervation and Acquired Motor Skills: An fMRI Study with Expert Dancers,” Cerebral Cortex 15, no. 8 (2009): 1243–49.
19. James J. Gibson, Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (New York: Psychology Press, 2015), 119–36.
20. For an accessible overview, see Joseph LeDoux, “Manipulating Memory,” The Scientist Magazine, March 1, 2009, www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/27171/title/Manipulating-Memory/.
21. Susanne Langer, “On Cassirer’s Theory of Language and Myth,” in The Philosophy of Ernst Cassirer, ed. Paul Arthur Schlipp (New York: Tudor Publishing Company, 1949), 383.
22. Susanne Langer, Feeling and Form, 220.
23. Aby Warburg, quoted in Ernst Gombrich, Aby Warburg: An Intellectual Biography, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), 246.
24. Andrea Pinotti, “Memory and Image,” The Italian Academy for Advanced Studies in America, October 8, 2003, italianacademy.columbia.edu/fellow/andrea-pinotti.
25. Steven Pinker, The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature (New York: Viking, 2002), 418.
26. For an overview see Tabitha M. Powledge, “Behavioral Epigenetics: How Nurture Shapes Nature,” BioScience 61, iss. 8 (2011): 588–92.
27. Aby Warburg, quoted in Gombrich, 219.
28. Ibid., 220.
29. Giorgio Agamben, “Aby Warburg and the Nameless Science,” in Potentialities: Collected Essays in Philosophy, trans. Daniel Heller Roazen (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1999), 90.
30. For various scholarly views on the question, see the exhibition catalogue Orazio and Artemisia Gentileschi, ed. Keith Christiansen and Judith Mann (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, with Yale University Press, 2001).
31. Søren Kierkegaard, Kierkegaard’s Journals and Notebooks, vol. 1, journals AA–DD, ed. Neils Jørgen Cappelørn, Alastair Hannay, David Kangas, Bruce H. Kirmmse, George Pattison, Vanessa Rumble, and K. Brian Söderquist (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), 246.
Philosophy Matters in Brain Matters
1. Siri Hustvedt, The Blazing World (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2014), 336.
2. Margaret Cavendish, Observations upon Experimental Philosophy, ed. Eileen O’Neill (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 153.
3. Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996).
4. Wilhelm Wundt, Outlines of Psychology, trans. C. D. Judd (London: Williams & Norgate, 1897), 10.
5. See Christopher G. Goetz, Michael Bonduelle, and Toby Gelfand, Charcot: Constructing Neurology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995).
6. Sigmund Freud, New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis (1933), The Standard Edition of the Complete Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 22 (London: Hogarth Press, 1964).
7. Stanley Cobb, Borderlands of Psychiatry, 19–20.
8. Robert J. Campbell, Campbell’s Psychiatric Dictionary, 8th ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
9. Siri Hustvedt, The Shaking Woman, 3–5.
10. Selim R. Benbadis, “Psychogenic Nonepileptic Seizures,” in The Treatment of Epilepsy: Principles and Practice, 4th ed., ed. by Elaine Wyllie (Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004), 623–30.
11. Ibid., 626.
12. Ibid., 627.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid., 628.
15. Ibid.
16. A. Vincent et al., “Prevalence of Fibromyalgia: A Population Based Study in Olmstead County, Minnesota, Utilizing the Rochester Epidemiology Project,” Arthritis Care & Research (2012), doi: 10 1002/acr. 21896.
17. See M. L. Meevisse et al., “Cortisol and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” British Journal of Psychiatry 191 (2007): 387–92; M. Olff, W. Langeland, and P. R. B. Gersons, “Effects of Appraisal and Coping on the Neuroendocrine Response to Extreme Stress,” Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 29 (2005): 457–67; A. Jatzko et al., “Hippocampal Volume in Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): MRI Study Using Two Different Evaluation Methods,” Journal of Affective Disorders 94 (2006): 121–26.
18. T. B. Franklin et al., “Epigenetic Transmission of the Impact of Early Stress Across Generations,” Biological Psychiatry 68 (2010): 408–15.
19. Charles S. Myers, Shell Shock in France, 1914–1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1940).
20. “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and A Veteran’s Plea for Medical Attention,” http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/Americans_Who_Support_PTSD_Veterans/message/643.
21. Pierre Janet, The Major Symptoms of Hysteria, 18.
22. Ibid., 19.
23. Ibid., 293–316.
24. Ibid., 172.
25. Ibid., 131.
26. T. H. Hurwitz and J. W. Prichard, “Conversion Disorder and fMRI,” Neurology 67 (2006): 1914–15.
27. K. M. Yazici and L. Kostakoglu, “Cerebral Blood Flow Changes in Patients with Conversion Disorder,” Psychiatry Research 83 (1998): 163–68.
28. Sigmund Freud, Project for a Scientific Psychology (1895), Standard Edition, vol. 1, 295–392.
29. John Lysiak, “Epilepsy in My Life,” Injured Brains of Medical Minds: Views from Within, ed. Narinder Kapur (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 389–92.
30. Ibid., 389.
31. Helen S. Mayberg et al.,“The Functional Neuroanatomy of the Placebo Effect,” American Journal of Psychiatry 159 (2002): 728–37; Fabrizio Benedetti et al., “Neurobiological Mechanisms of the Placebo Effect,” Journal of Neuroscience 9 (2005): 10390–402; A. K. Vallance, “Something Out of Nothing: The Placebo Effect,” Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 12 (2006): 287–96.
32. K. Goldapple et al., “Modulation of Cortical-Limbic Pathways in Major Depression: Treatment Specific Effects of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy,” Archives of General Psychiatry 61 (2004): 34–41.
33. G. S. Dichter et al., “The Effects of Psychotherapy on Neural Responses to Rewards in Major Depression,” Biological Psychiatry 66 (2009): 886–97.
34. Lysiak, 390.
Kierkegaard’s Pseudonyms and the Truths of Fiction
1. Émile Benveniste, Problems in General Linguistics, trans. Mary Elizabeth Meek (Miami, OH: University of Miami Press, 1971), 208.
2. Søren Kierkegaard, Søren Kierkegaard’s Journals and Papers, vol. 1, trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna Hong (Indianopolis: Indiana University Press, 1967), [8, B88, 1847], 302.
3. Johannes Climacus, Philosophical Fragments, Kierkegaard’s Writings, vol. 7, trans. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 168. Hereafter, this source identified as KW.
4. Ibid., 255.
5. G. W. F. Hegel, Phenomenology of Spirit, 2nd ed., trans. J. B. Baillie (London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1931), 794.
6. Either/Or, part 1, KW, vol. 3, 7.
7. The Concept of Anxiety, KW, vol. 8, trans. Reidar Thomte in collaboration with Albert B. Anderson, 115.
8. Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments, KW, vol. 1, 27.
9. Óscar Parcero Oubiña, “Miguel de Cervantes: The Valuable Contribution of a Minor Influence,” in Jon Stewart, ed., Kierkegaard and the Renaissance and Modern Traditions: Literature, Drama, and Music (Farnham: Ashgate, 2009), 26.
10. Ibid., 18.
11. Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 625–26.
12. Ibid., 626.
13. Ibid., 627.
14. The Concept of Anxiety, 123.
15. Journals and Papers (1839), 343.
16. Either/Or, Part 2, 263.
17. Repetition in Fear and Trembling, Repetition, KW, vol. 6, 137.
18. Ibid., 131.
19. Either/Or, Part 1, 222.
20. Ibid., 225.
21. Kierkegaard’s Journals and Notebooks, vol. 1, journals AA–DD, ed. Niels Jørgen Cappelørn, Al
istair Hannay, David Kangas, Bruce H. Kirmmse, George Pattison, Vanessa Rumble, and Brian Söderquist (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007), Journal DD: 62 (1837), 233.
22. The Concept of Anxiety, 72.
23. Ibid.
24. The Point of View, KW, vol. 22, 177.
25. Journals and Papers, Autobiographical, 1829–1848, 243.
26. Either/Or, Part 2, 117.
27. Stages on Life’s Way, KW, vol. 11, 189.
28. Sylviane Agacinski, Aparté: Conceptions and Deaths of Søren Kierkegaard, trans. Kevin Newmark (Tallahassee: Florida State University Press, 1988), 250.
29. Fear and Trembling, 100.
30. Fernando Pessoa, The Selected Prose of Fernando Pessoa, trans. Richard Zenith (New York: Grove, 2001), 256.
31. Joakim Garff, Søren Kierkegaard: A Biography, trans. Bruce Kirmmse (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 232.
32. The Point of View, 79.
33. Donald W. Winnicott, “Ego Distortion in Terms of the True and False Self,” in The Maturational Processes and the Facilitating Environment (London: Karnac Books, 1990), 143.
34. The Point of View, 84.
35. Ibid., 72.
36. Ibid., 73.
37. Heidi Hansen and Leif Bork Hansen, “Maskineriets intrigante hemmelighed,” Kritik, 83 (1998): 118–28.
38. David P. Moore and Basauk K. Puri, Textbook of Clinical Neuropsychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience (Boca Ratan, FL: CRC Press, 2012), 110.
39. Williams James, Varieties of Religious Experience, in William James: Writings 1902–1910 (New York: The Library of America, 1987), 23.
40. Ibid., 25.
41. Roger Poole, Kierkegaard: The Indirect Communication (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1993), 183.
42. Ibid., 188.
43. Krafft-Ebing, quoted in Owsei Tempkin, The Falling Sickness: A History of Epilepsy from the Greeks to the Beginnings of Modern Neurology, 2nd ed. (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1971), 363.
44. Siri Hustvedt, The Shaking Woman, 139.
45. Concluding Unscientific Postscript, 347.
46. Ibid., 234.
47. The Point of View, 189.
48 Ibid., 89.
49. Ibid., 214.
50. Practice in Christianity, KW, vol. 20, 280.
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