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My initial plan to introduce a wide audience to the latest findings on animal culture turned out to be pointless if I didn't at the same time explore human cultural views, which in the West are generally hostile to any blurring of the line between beast and man. Consequently, this book reflects on our relation with nature, and the usefulness of a dichotomy between culture and nature. Greatly stimulated by a sabbatical in China and Japan, I set out to juxtapose Western and Eastern thinking on these matters.
During my sabbatical, I visited numerous primate field sites, watched human behavior in unfamiliar surroundings, and enjoyed animated discussions over delicious dinners with colleagues and their students. Especially in Japan, there exists a long and rich primatological tradition, the unique significance of which is highlighted in this book.
Thanks to developments that began there, half a century ago, we are now entering a period with increasing emphasis on within-species diversity. This is a major departure from earlier obsessions with instinct and genetic adaptation. After having written this book, I am convinced more than ever that the topic of animal culture is here to stay, and will grow into one of the most exciting fields-a field with implications beyond animal behavior.
On my travels in China I was accompanied by my friend Renmei Ren with assistance from Yanjie Su and Kanghui Yan. Jiao Shao introduced me to the teachings of Mencius, and Jinhua Li impressed me deeply with the wild Tibetan macaques in Anhui Province.
In Japan, I was graciously hosted by many different colleagues, starting with Toshisada Nishida, who invited me to Kyoto University supported by a fellowship from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). With Nishida-one of the first Japanese primatologists to embrace the evolutionary approach-I discussed at length his work in the Mahale Mountains, Tanzania, and the origins of Imanishiism.
'Ietsuro Matsuzawa received me at the Primate Research Institute, in lnuyama, where we went over many aspects of culture, including his sushimaster comparison. Matsuzawa and his students are busy testing social transmission. The image that stays with me is that of a female chimpanzee separated from us by a glass wall, bringing a hefty branch to extract honey from a tiny hole in the wall-she clearly had the right idea, but still had some finetuning to do.
Michael Huffman, an American-born primatologist fluent in Japanese, helped me in multiple ways and arranged an enlightening encounter with Imanishi's foremost student, Jun'ichiro Itani. We also visited Huffman's stone-handling macaques on Arashiyama, which so nicely demonstrate that cultural learning doesn't require external rewards. I am particularly grateful to Kunio Watanabe, who accompanied me on my visit to distant Koshima, arranged a potato feeding of the monkeys, and brought me in contact with Satsue Mito with whom I communicated thanks to the translation skills of Satsuki Kuroki.
Other extremely helpful Japanese colleagues were Takeshi Furuichi, Chie Hashimoto, Satoshi Hirata, Shoji Itakura, Takayoshi Kano, Suehisa Kuroda, Junshiro Makino, Masayuki Nakamichi, Osamu Sakura, Yukimaru Sugiyama, Hideko Takeshita, Keiji Terao, Shigeo Uehara, 'Ioshifumi Udono, Yoshikazu Ueno, Soshichi Uchii, Shigeru Watanabe, Juichi Yamagiwa, and Gen Yamakoshi. Toshikazu Hasegawa and Mariko IliraiwaHasegawa invited me to an enjoyable weekend on Izu, from where we could see the shimmering peak of Mount Fuji, while briefing me on the reception of sociobiology in their country. Kazuhiko Hosaka served as an indispensable travel coordinator not realizing beforehand how complex my trip to the far corners of Japan was to become.
I thank my co-worker, Filippo Aureli, for taking over the supervision of my research team of technicians and students, not to mention the primate colonies, at the Yerkes Primate Center during my absence, and Emory University for a sabbatical leave and other indispensable support. On my return trip, I stayed in Helsinki, Finland, for a symposium on Edward Westermarck: I appreciate Jukka-Pekka Takala's efforts to revive interest in Westermarck's important thoughts on the evolution of morality.
In writing this book I received great help of colleagues who offered infornmation or the use of illustrations, for which I wish to thank Otto Adang, Robert Beck, Agnes Cranach-Lorenz, Margaret la Farge, Eva-Maria Gruber, Joseph Hearst, Robert Hinde, the Imanishi family, Jun'ichiro Itani,'I'homas Kunz, Paul Lennard, Gerald Massey, Peter Mark!, Desmond Morris, Amy Parish, Bruce Plante, Daniel Povinelli, Robert Pudim, Wolfgang Schleidt, Volker Sommer, Emanuela Cenami Spada, and Meredith West. I received assistance with the acquisition of illustrations from Darren Long and James Choo at the Living Links Center (www. emory. edu/LIVING_LINKS/), and Frank Kiernan helped develop and print the many photographs I took in China and Japan.
Most of this book is new, but some chapters borrow text from previous pieces that I wrote for The Chronicle of Higher Education, Discover, Liberation, Nature, The New York Times, Scientific American, and The Times Higher Education Supplement. I am grateful for the support of Elizabeth Ziemska, my agent, and Don Fehr, my editor at Basic Books, as well as John Bergez for many constructive suggestions for improvement. Sections of the book have benefited from critical feed-back and fact-checking by Pamela Asquith, Jeanne Ferris, Harold Gouzoules, Mariko Hasegawa, Michael Huffman, Suehisa Kuroda, Satsuki Kuroki, Jinhua Li, Tetsuro Matsuzawa, William McGrew, Toshisada Nishida, Holger Preuschoft, Renmei Ren, Carel van Schaik, Osamu Sakura, Yukimaru Sugiyama, Soshichi Uchii, Kunio Watanabe, Shigeru Watanabe, Meredith West, and Andrew Whiten.
Finally, I thank my wife, Catherine Marin, for comments on all bits and pieces of text on the day of production. Together, we are living proof that cultural diversity, which makes for interesting collisions between routines and values, is easily bridged by mutual love.
Dr. Frans B. M. de Waal is the C. H. Candler Professor of Primate Behavior at Emory University and Director of the Living Links Center. One of the world's leading primate behavior experts, he is the author of Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes, Peacemaking Among Primates, Good Natured: The Origins of Right and Wrong in Humans and Other Animals, and Bonobo: The Forgotten Ape.
Designed in 1935 by William Addison Dwiggins, Electra has been a standard book typeface since its release because of its evenness of design and high legibility. In the specimen book for Electra, Dwiggins himself points out the type's identifying characteristics: "The weighted top serifs of the straight letters of the lower case: that is a thing that occurs when you are making formal letters with a pen, writing quickly. And the flat way the curves get away from the straight stems: that is a speed product." Electra is not only a fine text face but is equally responsive when set at display sizes, realizing Dwiggins' intent when he set about the design: "...if you don't get your type warm it will be just a smooth, commonplace, third-rate piece of good machine technique-no use at all for setting down warm human ideas-just a box full of rivets.... I'd like to make it warm-so full of blood and personality that it would jump at you."
Table of Contents
Prologue: The Apes' Tea Party
Section 1 Cultural Glasses: The Way We See Other Animals
1 The Whole Animal: Childhood Talismans and Excessive Fear of Anthropomorphism
2 The Fate of Gurus: When Silverbacks Become Stumbling Blocks
3 Bonobos and Fig Leaves: Primate Hippies in a Puritan Landscape
4 Animal Art: Would You Hang a Congo on the Wall?
Section 2 What Is Culture, and Does It Exist in Nature?
5 Predicting Mount Fuji, and a Visit to Koshima, Where the Monkeys Salt Their Potatoes
6 The Last Rubicon: Can Other Animals Have Culture?
7 Tl'lie Nutcracker Suite: Reliance on Culture in Nature
8 Cultural Naturals: Tea and Tibetan Macaques
Section 3 Human Nature: The Way We See Ourselves
9 Apes with Self-Esteem: Abraham Maslow and the Taboo on Power
10 Survival of the Kindest: Of Selfish Genes and Unselfish Dogs
11 Down with Dualism! Two Millennia of Debate About Human Goodness
Epilogue: The Squirrel's Jump
Notes
; Bibliography
Acknowledgments
Index
The Ape And The Sushi Master Reflections Of A Primatologist Page 32