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The Mystery of the Copper Scroll of Qumran

Page 46

by Robert Feather


  Examples of bullae with ‘Aten’ motifs, found in Israel, are described in an article by Robert Deutsch, ‘Lasting Impressions’, Biblical Archaeology Review, July/August (Washington, D.C.: Biblical Archaeology Society, 2002).

  7. Sigmund Freud, Moses and Monotheism (London: The Hogarth Press, 1951).

  8. Jan Assmann, Moses the Egyptian (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); Erik Hornung, Professor of Egyptology, University of Basel, in his book Idea into Image (New York: Timken Publishers, 1992), comes to many of the same conclusions about Akhenaten and the Hebrews.

  9. Raymond Brown, Joseph Fitzmyer, Roland Murphy (eds.), The New Jerome Biblical Commentary (London: Cassell & Co., 1996).

  10. Richard E. Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible?, (San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco,1997).

  11. Many of the names in this group are Egyptian in origin. Korah, according to the Talmud (28 Peschi 18a) was treasurer to Pharaoh; On was the ancient name for Heliopolis, near Cairo, the traditional centre of theology in ancient Egypt.

  12. Friedman, Who Wrote the Bible?

  13. Ibid.

  14. Whilst Professor Friedman believes Jeremiah was a Shilonite, and I am inclined to agree with this notion, he takes Ezekiel to be an Aaronite, a stance I do not agree with, as Professor Wacholder’s analysis tends to bear out. Ezekiel constantly refers to geographical locations in the North and says that Israel’s redemption will come from the North not the Aaronite South. Professor Friedman also concludes that the sections of the Old Testament that are identified as being authored by an Aaronite priestly group labelled P, comprising P1 - written before the First Temple was destroyed and before Deuteronomy, in the time of Hezekiah c.610 BCE - and P2, were added later. Professor Friedman ascribes his readings of P to Aaronite interests, but I am not so convinced. There are elements of Professor Friedman’s P that are more consistent with Shilonite ideas indicating the author is not so much anti-Moses but more interested in the original understanding of Akhenaten-style rejection of angels, anthropomorphisms, dreams and talking animals, whilst emphasising cosmic firmaments, and God’s omnipotence over Moses and Aaron. P also never mentions the Temple, but only talks about the Tabernacle. Why would a pro-Aaronite author of P ignore the Temple, the centre of their sphere of influence? The one thread that seems to help define the Shilonite thinking is their adherence to the Tabernacle as a main plank of their belief. Not surprising as the Tabernacle was their exclusive prerogative in earliest times and their exclusion form the Jerusalem Temple may well be the reason why they constantly ignored the Temple and denigrated it whilst it remained in the hands of those they considered illegitimate guardians. That is not to say that the concept of the Temple was not important to them, it was. Nevertheless the true Temple was to be in different hands and of different design.

  15. Ben Zion Wacholder, verbal presentation made at the following conference: Dead Sea Scrolls – Fifty Years After Their Discovery, Congress in Jerusalem, July 1977.

  16. A. Geiger, Urschrift und Ubersetzungen der Bibel (Brelau, 1857); Julius Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels, (Edinburgh: A. & C. Black, 1885).

  17. Ben Zion Wacholder, Ezekiel and Ezekielianism as Progenitors of Essenianism, The Dead Sea Scrolls, Forty Years of Research, ed., Devorah Dimant and Uriel Rappaport (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992).

  18. Ibid.

  19. A sect closely related to the Essenes, who were based near Alexandria and in the Valley of Natrun, in the Delta region of Egypt.

  20. Assmann, Moses the Egyptian.

  21. Meyer, Aegyptische Chronologie.

  22. Assmann, Moses the Egyptian.

  23. Philip R. Davies, Behind the Essenes - History and Ideology in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Program in Judaic Studies, No. 94 (Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1987).

  24. Shlomo Margalit, Aelia Capitolina, Judaica No. 45 (São Paulo: Capital Sefarad Editorial e Propaganda, Marz 1989).

  25. Michael Chyutin, The New Jerusalem Scroll from Qumran - A Comprehensive Reconstruction, Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha, Supplement Series 25, (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997). The other city, also laid out in an orthogonal pattern, that Michael Chyutin considered might be a possible contender for the New Jerusalem Scroll temple, was Sesebi, in the southern Nubia area of Egypt. Strangely enough this was also a new build site developed by Pharaoh Akhenaten, where he was known as the ‘Lion of Nubia’, (Dr Robert Morkot, Akhenaten in Nubia, Egypt Exploration Society Meeting, SOAS, University College London, 27 February 2001). The information quoted draws on Michael Chyutin’s above study, on an article entitled The New Jerusalem Ideal City, Dead Sea Discoveries I, 1994; a critique by Dwight D. Swanson, Dead Sea Discoveries 6, 1999; e-mails from Michael Chyutin in December 2001.

  26. John Kampen, ‘The Significance of the Temple in the Manuscripts of the Damascus Document’, The Dead Sea Scrolls at Fifty, Society of Biblical Literature, Qumran Section Meetings (Atlanta, Ga.: Scholars Press, 1999).

  27. Ibid.

  28. Yigael Yadin, The Temple Scroll (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985).

  29. Esther M. Menn, ‘Praying King and Sanctuary of Prayer Part 1; David and the Temple’s Origins in Rabbinic Psalms, Commentary Midrash Tehillim’, Journal of Semitic Studies, Vol. LII, No.1 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001).

  30. Serge Frolov, ‘King’s Law’ of the Temple Scroll; Mishnaic Aspects’, Journal of Jewish Studies, Vol. L, No. 2 (Cambridge: 1999).

  31. Cyril Aldred, Akhenaten, King of Egypt (London: Thames & Hudson, 1996).

  32. Robert Feather, private correspondence January, 1999, also BBC2 TV Documentary,The Pharaoh’s Holy Treasure, 31 March 2002.

  33. S. Birch, Catalogue of the Collection of Egyptian Antiquities at Alnwick Castle (London: R. Clay & Sons, 1880).

  34. Freud, Moses and Monotheism.

  35. Messod and Roger Sabbah, Les Secrets de L’Exode (Paris: Jean-Cyrille Godefroy, 2001). Incidentally the authors also make out a strong case for the Massai tribe of Africa as being Akhenaten followers-descendants, reprising findings relating to the strange pseudo-Hebrew community at Elephantine, and the Falasha of Ethiopia.

  36. God’s name appears in many forms in the Old Testament: as a Hebrew yod, vav and two heys; the double yod; Hashem, or just the Hebrew letter hey - the Name; Makom - Every Place; Adonai - Mastery; El; Eloha; Elohim; Shadai; Tsevaoit; Elohai. Jeremy Rosen, Not so Dashing, Jewish Chronicle, 11 May 2001.

  37. Jacques Champollion, Grammaire Egyptienne (Paris: Solin, 1997).

  38. ‘Ai’ is the first sounding syllable of the word Israel or Yisrael, as it appears in the Merneptah stela, dated to 1210 BCE - the first Egyptian representation of Israel, as a people. (The ‘Y’ sound equates to the Hieroglyph sound of the ‘double reed’ symbol - indicating supreme ruler of Upper and Lower Egypt, and perhaps equating to the ‘double Yod’, used in the Old Testament to indicate the ineffable name of God).

  39. Birch, Catalogue of the Collection of Egyptian Antiquities at Alnwick Castle.

  40. John Noble Wilford ‘Discovery of Egyptian Inscriptions Indicates an Earlier Date for Origins of the Alphabet’, New York Times, 13 November 1999; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (http://www.jh­u.edu/news_info/news/h­ome99/nov99/alpha.html).

  (Frank Moore Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumran (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), cites examples in the Qumran texts where endings on verbs as ‘-a’ are restored, even in contexts where they do not belong. These vowel endings are survivals from ancient Canaanite, which in vernacular speech were lost about 1,200 BCE.)

  41. Ibid.

  42. Refer to note 5 for this chapter.

  43. Émile Puech, ‘Les Deux Derniers Psaumes Davidiques du Rituel d’Exorcisme’, 11PsApa IV 4-V14’, The Dead Sea Scrolls – Forty Years of Research (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1992).

  44. Kathleen M. Kenyon, The Bible and Recent Archaeology (London: British Museum Publications, 1987). Another drawing at Kuntillet Ajrud gives credence to a connection back to Aten for the
associated find. It shows a procession of five worshippers with arms extended in an attitude of upward adoration and near to the mouth of the leader in what appears to be an open hand - reminiscent of the hand of Aten seen on inscriptions at Amarna (P. Beck, The Drawings from Horvat Teiman (Kuntillet Ajrud), Tel Aviv 9 (Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, 1982 ).

  45. Transcript of interview with Professor John Tait, at the Institute of Artchaeology, London, 21 December 2001.

  46. Schiffman and Schiffman, And it Shall Come to Pass in the End of Days: An Agenda for the Future.

  INDEX

  Aaron, 32, 34, 118–19, 123–25, 130, 132–33, 140–41, 143, 182, 213, 218, 221–22, 286, 289

  Ab, 109, 235, 256

  Abimelech, King, 77

  Abiram, 131, 287

  Abraham (Abram, Ibrahim), 2, 32–33, 39, 45, 47, 67–75, 78–81, 93–96, 105–6, 116, 204, 209, 221–22, 250, 278–79, 337, 342–45

  Absalom, 193–94

  Abu Gurab, 189

  Abu Simbel, 153

  Abydos, 106

  Abyssinia, 268, 272, 274

  Accelerator Mass Spectroscopy (AMS), 3–4

  Adam, 311

  Admonitions Scroll, 163

  Agade, 35

  Aggadah, 126, 335

  Ahaz, 230

  Ahimelech, 140

  Ahmose, 41, 51, 61

  Ahmose El–Kab, 65

  Ain Farah, 157

  Akhenaten. See Amenhotep IV.

  Akhetaten. See also El-Amarna; 85, 99, 101–2, 105–6, 111, 114, 123, 132, 133, 147, 152, 156–58, 167–68, 179, 180, 188–94, 200, 218, 224–55, 227, 231–34, 236–39, 255, 266, 270, 291, 320

  as the ‘New Jerusalem,’ 143–48

  comparisons with Elephantine Island, 259–62

  possible treasure sites in, 171–74, 176–77, 182–83, 185–86

  Akkadian, 12, 73, 259, 367

  Akki, 35

  Aksum, 270

  Al Ahxsa, 162

  Aldred, Cyril, 90–91, 295, 345–47, 353, 356–57, 363–65

  Aleppo Codex, 331

  Alexander, David, 343

  Alexander, Pat, 42, 307, 352

  Alexander the Great, 60, 122, 319

  Alexandria, 105, 133–34, 245, 249, 257

  Alkaabez, 108, 348

  Allegro, John Marco, 11, 13–14, 18, 21, 44–45, 157, 166–68, 171, 175–80, 187–89, 191–93, 200, 332–34, 339–40, 353–55

  Amanita Muscaria, 45

  Amarna, El-. See also Akhetaten; 40, 55, 63–66, 72–73, 84–87, 98–102, 115, 148–49, 156, 158, 160, 168, 170, 172–74, 176, 180, 183, 187–89, 191–93, 208, 225, 227–28, 243, 262, 273

  Amduat, 109, 243

  Amen-hetep-neter-heqa-Uast, 280

  Amenhotep I, 39, 61, 79–81, 83, 114–15

  Amenhotep II, 59–63, 259, 266, 361

  Amenhotep III, 61–62, 83, 106, 109, 134, 153, 218, 251, 264

  Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten, Ikhanaton), 33, 63–65, 73, 77, 79, 84–93, 98, 100–101, 104–8, 112–17, 125, 127, 132, 133–35, 137, 142–46, 150, 152–53, 155–58, 160, 164–67, 170–74, 178, 181–83, 186, 193, 204–5, 210, 212–15, 218, 220–23, 226–27, 229–30, 232, 237, 239, 243, 248–50, 255, 257–61, 263, 279–80, 283, 289, 294, 299–300, 349, 353–58

  Influence, 269–72

  and the Patriarchs, 95–97, 102–5

  religious beliefs, 84–91

  Amenhotep family, 58, 60, 66, 92, 113, 116–17, 167, 201, 215, 224, 257–58, 260

  Amenhotpe, son of Hapu, 134

  Amenophis (Amenhotep or Amenhotpe), 117, 127, 134, 167

  American School of Oriental Research, 9

  Amhara, 269, 271

  Amman, 12

  Archaeological Museum, 12, 300

  Ammonites, 350

  Amon, 41, 55, 63, 65

  Amorites, 68, 81

  Amos, 140, 263–64, 266, 277

  Amram, 35, 41, 132–33, 197, 219–20, 288

  Amraphel, 77

  amulets, 58, 92, 214

  Amun, 84, 86, 106–7, 130

  Amun-Ra (Amon-Re), 39, 86, 123

  Anath, 55

  Anatolia, 61, 73

  Anderson, G. W., 69, 74, 77, 259–60, 342–44, 361

  Andrea, Michelle, 18, 334

  Anglican, 44

  Aner, 81–82

  Ani, 214, 250, 338

  ankh, 290

  Ankhesenpaten, 106

  Ankhsheshonq, 248

  Ank-Ma-Hor, 40, 130

  Antiochus IV, 318–19

  Antonia Fortress, the, 157

  Anubis, 47

  Anuket, 341

  Any, 99

  Aperu, 116

  Apion, 134

  apocalypse, 8, 203, 207

  Apochrypha, 209, 291, 367

  Apollo, 182

  Apy, 85, 99

  Aquila Bible, 209

  Arabia, 263, 269

  Arabic, 12, 268

  Arad, Tell, 264

  Araldite, 12

  Aramaic, 12, 59, 132, 141, 146, 215, 220, 235, 252–54, 256, 259–61, 367

  Aramaens, 257, 271

  arbeitwerke, 114–15

  Archimedes, 71, 344

  Arizona

  AMS Laboratory, 4

  University of, 131

  Arlington, Texas, 18

  Ark of the Covenant, 16, 109, 123–26, 129, 131–32, 137, 140, 182, 225, 228–29, 271

  arsenic, 26–27

  Asenath, 97

  Ashambethel, 264

  Asher, 270

  Ashera, 271, 299

  Ashkelon, 135

  Ashkenazi, 131

  Ashmuneim, 103

  Ashtaroth (Ashtoreth). See also Astorath; Astarte; 226, 229

  Assiut, 102

  Assmann, Jan, 244–45, 285, 290, 363–64

  Assyria, 32, 42, 100, 115, 139, 241–42, 246, 257–58, 263, 271, 367

  Astarte, 55, 31, 259–60, 264, 271, 361

  Astorath, 221

  Aswan, 256, 259, 268

  Atbara, River, 100

  Aten (Aton), 65, 84–87, 90–91, 99–100, 106–9, 111, 114–15, 134–37, 168, 170, 176, 189, 193, 207, 218, 222–27, 243, 296, 298–99

  Athanasius, 245, 331

  Atum, 51, 55, 56

  Aumann, Moshe, 342

  Avaris, 160, 339

  Ay, 106, 130, 243

  Azariah, Anani b., 263

  Baal, 37, 229–31, 298

  Babylon, 18, 32, 42, 129, 142–44, 205, 211, 288

  Babylonians, 8, 17, 40, 72, 77, 142–43, 153, 162, 206, 257–61, 271, 319

  Bagoas, 262

  Bahr Yusuf, 102, 160

  Baillet, M., 333

  Baines, John, 354

  Bakhtiari, 68–69

  Bakhtyar, 70–71

  Bannister, C. O., 335

  Banu-yamina, 68

  Bar Illan University, 283

  Bar-Kochba, 351

  Barnett, Mary, 353

  Barthélemy, Dominique, 236, 332, 358

  Baruch, 32, 287

  Basel University, 245

  Baumgartner, W., 360

  Beck, P., 366

  bedouin, 2, 37

  Midianite, 36–37, 68

  Mohammed edh-Dibh, 3

  Taamirek tribe, 330

  Beersheba, 71, 100

  Belial, 222, 292

  Ben Asher text, 301

  Benben (Stone), 51, 178

  Bender, Lionel, 362

  Ben-Dor, Shoshana, 273, 362

  Ben Ezra, 208

  Beni Amran, 192

  Benjamin, 95, 257

  Benjamites, 66

  Ben Shammen, 146

  Ben Sira, 209

  Ben-Tor, Amnon, 213

  Benu-Yamina, 66

  Bergman, S. H., 345

  Berlin Museum, 259

  Bes, 299

  Bethel, 71, 94, 223, 230, 293

  Bethlehem, 203, 293

  Bezalel, 126

  Bezalel Museum, 264

  Bible, 35–37, 43, 46, 58, 67–69, 70–72, 75, 77–78, 91, 9
6, 98, 100, 102, 114, 116–17, 119–20, 122–23, 129–30, 133, 139, 163, 165, 172, 193, 205, 215–16, 218, 225, 238, 241–42, 246–47, 265, 271, 311

  and Egyptian texts, 50–54

  texts, 19, 74, 94, 119, 232, 243, 272

  and Moses’ origins, 40–42

  Biblical and Archaeological Museum, Jerusalem, 257

  Bibliothéque Nacionale, 331

  Birch, S., 365

  Birmingham University, 51

  Bitter Lakes, 122

  Blackman, A. M., 187

  Blank, Amy, 104, 347

  Blazer, S., 350

  Bluffton College, 292

  Bonani, G., 331

  Book of the Dead, 43, 46, 51, 214, 235

  borax, 299

  Bradman, N., 350

  Bradman, R., 350

  Bradshaw, Thomas, 334, 338

  brass, 304, 312, 317

  brazing, 25

  Breasted, James Henry, 49, 90–91, 114, 344–46, 339, 345, 353, 357–59, 368

  British Iron and Steel Corporation, 2

  British Musem, 24, 39, 49, 114, 127, 165, 179, 235, 242, 251, 254, 304

  Brizemeure, D., 336

  bromine, 235

  Bronowski, J., 70–71, 81, 342, 345

  bronze, 23–24, 58, 70, 128, 335

  Brooke, George, xviii–xx, 144–45, 232, 283–84, 332, 353, 358–59

  Brooklyn Museum, 259, 263, 299

  Broshi, Magen, 358

  Brown University, 220

  Brugsch, H., 242, 359

  Brunel, Isambard Kingdom, 288

  Buck, A. de, 341

  Buddhist teaching, 43, 55, 66, 340

  Budge, E.A. Wallis, 49, 114, 242, 338–39, 348, 357–59 Bunch, Bryan, 343

  Caesar, Titus, 39

  Cairo, 11, 62, 97, 109, 156, 178, 208–10, 217

  Museum of, 26, 129, 147, 235

  Cairo-Damascus Document, 181, 288

  Calderini, Aristide, 167, 354

 

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