19. Charles P. Kindleberger, A Financial History of Western Europe, 2nd ed. (New York, 1993), 173–76.
20. Dennis O. Flinn and Arturo Giraldez, “Cycles of Silver: Global Economic Unity through the Mid-Eighteenth Century,” Journal of World History, 13 (2002): 391–427.
CHAPTER 3. CRUCIAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE COUNTRYSIDE
1. Alfred W. Crosby, Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492 (Westport, CT, 1972).
2. Kenneth Pomeranz and Steven Topik, The World That Trade Created: Society, Culture, and the World Economy, 2nd ed. (Armonk, NY, 2006), 07.
3. Quoted in Andrew B. Appleby, “Diet in Sixteenth-Century England,” in Charles Webster, ed., Health, Medicine and Mortality in the Sixteenth Century (Cambridge, 1979).
4. David Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (Cambridge, 1969), 15–16.
5. David Levine, At the Dawn of Modernity: Biology, Culture, and Material Life in Europe after the Year 1000 (Berkeley, 2001), 333–37.
6. Thomas Robert Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population (London, 1798), 139.
7. E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, Population History of England And Wales (London, 1981); E. A. Wrigley, Introduction to English Historical Demography from the Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1966), 96–159. See also Levine, At the Dawn of Modernity, 294–99.
8. Peter Laslett, The World We Have Lost (New York, 1965), 1. I have converted English currency to American dollars.
9. Fernand Braudel and Frank Spooner, “Prices in Europe, from 1450–1750,” in Edwin E. Rich and Charles Henry Wilson, eds., The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 4 (Cambridge, 1967).
10. P. H. H. Vries, “Are Coal and Colonies Really Crucial? Kenneth Pomeranz and the Great Divergence,” Journal of World History, 12 (2001): 4–5.
11. Robert Brenner, “Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe,” Past and Present: 68–72; Robert Brenner, “Property and Progress,” in Chris Wickham, ed., Marxist History-Writing for the Twenty-first Century (Oxford, 2007). Brenner, more than any other contemporary scholar, prompted a debate on the role of agriculture in modern economic change.
12. T. H. Aston and C. E. Philpin, eds., The Brenner Debate: Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Pre-Industrial Europe (Cambridge, 1985).
13. Wrigley, Continuity, Chance, and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England (Cambridge, 1988), 12–13.
14. Quoted in Joyce Oldham Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology in Seventeenth-Century England (Princeton, 1978), 59–64.
15. Ibid., 130.
16. D. V. Glass, “Gregory King’s Estimation of the Population of England and Wales, 1695,” Population Studies, 2 (1950).
17. E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England, 1541–1871: A Reconstruction (London, 1981); Gregory Clark, “Too Much Revolution: Agriculture in the Industrial Revolution, 1700–1860,” in Joel Mokyr, ed., The British Industrial Revolution: An Economic Perspective, 2nd ed. (Boulder, 1999), 238–39.
18. Thomas Culpeper, Plain English (London, 1673).
19. Robert C. Allen, “Economic Structure and Agricultural Productivity in Europe, 1300–1800,” European Review of Economic History, 4 (2000), 6–8.
20. Brenner, “Agrarian Class Structure,” 68–72.
21. Arthur Young, Travels in France during the years 1787, 1788, and 1789 (Dublin, 1793), I: 130.
CHAPTER 4. COMMENTARY ON MARKETS AND HUMAN NATURE
1. D. V. Glass, “Gregory King’s Estimation of the Population of England and Wales, 1695,” Population Studies, 2 (1950).
2. Locke Manuscripts, Cambridge University Library, Cambridge, England.
3. Boswell’s Life of Johnson, ed. George Birkbeck Hill (Oxford, 1887), II: 323.
4. Quoted in R. D. Collinson Black, “Smith’s Contribution in Historical Perspective,” in T. Wilson and A. S. Skinner, eds., The Market and the State: Essays in Honour of Adam Smith (Oxford, 1976).
5. E. A. Wrigley, “A Simple Model of London’s Importance in Changing English Society and Economy 1650–1750,” Past and Present, 37 (July 1967): 44–47.
6. Puerta del Sol, vol. 5, no. 6 (1994).
7. B. E. Supple, Commercial Crisis and Change in England, 1600–1642 (Cambridge, 1959), 231–36.
8. England’s Treasure by Forraign Trade (London, 1664 [originally published in 1622]), 218–19. Spelling has been modernized.
9. Benjamin Nelson, The Idea of Usury: From Tribal Brotherhood to Universal Otherhood, 2nd ed. (Chicago, 1969 [originally published in 1949]).
10. Ibid., 229ff, 74ff. See also Joyce Oldham Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology in Seventeenth-Century England (Princeton, 1978), 63–69.
11. Timur Kuran, “Explaining the Economic Trajectories of Civilization: The Systemic Approach,” Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization (2009, in press).
12. Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology, 158–98.
13. Jan De Vries, “The Industrial Revolution and the Industrial Revolution,” Paper presented at the Fifty-third Annual Meeting of the Economic History Association (June 1994): 257.
14. [Nicholas Barbon], A Discourse of Trade (1690), 15; [Dalby Thomas], An Historical Account of the West-India Colonies (London, 1690), 6, both quoted in Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology, 169–71.
15. [Barbon], A Discourse of Trade, 15; [Sir Dudley North], Discourses upon Trade (London, 1681), 14; [John Cary], An Essay on the State of England (Bristol, 1695), 143ff., quoted in Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology, 169–70.
16. Robert C. Allen, “The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective” (2006): 3–7, available on the Internet.
17. H-J. Voth, “Time and Work in Eighteenth-Century London,” Journal of Economic History, 58 (1998): 36–37.
18. [Henry Layton] Observations Concerning Money and Coin (London, 1697), 12, quoted in Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology, 237.
19. Appleby, Economic Thought and Ideology, 234.
20. Irwin Unger, The Greenback Era: A Social and Political History of American Finance, 1865–1879 (Princeton, 1964), 38–40.
21. This and the previous paragraph have been drawn from Mark Dincecco, “Fiscal Centralization, Limited Government, and Public Revenues in Europe, 1658–1913,” Paper given at the Van Gremp Seminar (UCLA, April 28, 2007), also available through scholar.Google.com.
22. Richard B. Sheridan, Sugar and Slavery: An Economic History of the British West Indies, 1623–1775 (Baltimore, 1974), 436–37.
23. Some Thoughts Concerning the Better Security of Our Trade and Navigation (London, 1685), 4.
24. Jeff Horn, The Path Not Taken: French Industrialization in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1830 (Cambridge, 2006), 51–53.
25. Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, The Origins of Physiocracy: Economic Revolution and Social Order in Eighteenth-Century France (Ithaca, 1976); Horn, Path Not Taken, 21, 30, 51–53.
CHAPTER 5. THE TWO FACES OF EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY CAPITALISM
1. These were the War of the League of Augsburg (1689–1697), War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1713), War of Jenkins’s Ear (1739–1741), War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), War of the American Revolution (1777–1783), War of the French Revolution (1792–1800), Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815).
2. David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (Oxford, 2006), 80; David Eltis, “The Volume and Structure of the Transatlantic Slave Trade: A Reassessment,” William and Mary Quarterly, 58 (2001).
3. Peter Bakewell, A History of Latin America, 2nd ed. (2004), 153–57.
4. Kenneth Pomeranz and Steven Topik, The World That Trade Created: Society, Culture, and the World Economy, 2nd ed. (Armonk, NY, 2006), 88–89.
5. Arnold Pacey, Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History (Cambridge, 1991), 100.
6. Davis, Inhuman Bondage, 83–85.
7. Pomeranz and Topik, World That Trade Created, 104–07.
8. Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves: The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies (Chapel Hill, 1972), 9–10.
9. Davis, Inhuman Bondage, 92–93.
10. Jan De Vries, “The Limits of Globalization in the Early Modern World,” Economic History Review (forthcoming): 8.
11. Frank Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen: The Negro in America (New York, 1947), 33.
12. See Chapter 2 for a fuller account of Virginia’s tobacco boom.
13. Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York, 1975), 24–26.
14. Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1676 through the Stono Rebellion (New York, 1974), 30–42.
15. Martha Schwendener, “Growing Up in the Caribbean, Inspiring Artists over the Centuries,” New York Times, June 29, 2007; Pomeranz and Topik, World That Trade Created, 72–73.
16. Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen, 48–54.
17. Carl N. Degler, Neither Black nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (New York, 1971), 245–56; Davis, Inhuman Bondage, 120–21; Tannenbaum, Slave and Citizen, 10.
18. www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/black_voices_display.cfn? id-24.
19. Bryan Edwards, The History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies, 5 vols. (London, 1810), 2:287–89, quoted by James Epstein, “Politics of Colonial Sensation: The Trial of Thomas Picton and the Cause of Louisa Calderon,” American Historical Review, 112 (June 2007): 714, n. 17.
20. Davis, Inhuman Bondage, 240–48.
21. Eric Williams, Capitalism and Slavery (London, 1944).
22. James M. Bryant, “The West and the Rest Revisited: Debating Capitalist Origins, European Colonialism, and the Advent of Modernity,” Canadian Journal of Sociology, 31 (2006): 434; Joel Mokyr, The Gifts of Athena: Historical Origins of the Knowledge Economy (Princeton, 2002), 123.
23. David Levine, Family Formation in an Age of Nascent Capitalism (New York, 1977), 77–78, 146–47.
24. E. A. Wrigley, “A Simple Model of London’s Importance in Changing English Society and Economy 1650–1750,” Past and Present, 37 (1967): 48.
25. E. A. Wrigley, Continuity, Chance, and Change: The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England (Cambridge, 1988), 26–29, 32, 56.
26. Robert C. Allen, The British Industrial Revolution in Global Perspective: How Commerce Created the Industrial Revolution and Modern Economic Growth, forthcoming, April 2009, http://www.nuffield.ox.ac.uk/users/ allen/unpublished/ econinvent-3.pdf.
27. Mokyr, Gifts of Athena, 75, n. 72.
28. Margaret C. Jacob, Scientific Culture and the Making of the Industrial West (Oxford, 1997).
29. Margaret C. Jacob and Larry Stewart, Practical Matter: Newton’s Science in the Service of Industry and Empire, 1687–1851 (Cambridge, 2004), 38–41; Mokyr, Gifts of Athena, 44–45.
30. Jacob and Stewart, Practical Matter, 83–87; Joyce Chaplin, The First Scientific American: Benjamin Franklin and the Pursuit of Genius (New York, 2006), 29–33.
31. Allen, British Industrial Revolution, 10; Mokyr, Gifts of Athena, 68.
32. Chaplin, The First Scientific American, 29–33; Jacob and Stewart, Practical Matter, 95, 97; the quote is from p. 93.
33. Pacey, Technology in World Civilization, 111–12; Allen, British Industrial Revolution, 27.
34. Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries Are Failing and What Can Be Done about It (Oxford, 2007), 82–84.
35. Allen, British Industrial Revolution, 28.
36. Eric Robinson and A. E. Musson, James Watt and the Steam Revolution: A Documentary History (London, 1969), 4–6.
37. Jack A. Goldstone, “Efflorescences and Economic Growth in World History: Rethinking the ‘Rise of the West’ and the Industrial Revolution,” Journal of World History, 13 (2002): 363.
38. J. R. McNeill, Something New under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World (New York, 2000), 13, 315.
39. Neil McKendrick, “Josiah Wedgwood and Factory Discipline,” Historical Journal (1961).
40. Pacey, Technology in World Civilization, 101.
41. Charles P. Kindleberger, A Financial History of Western Europe, 2nd ed. (Oxford, 1993), 193.
42. Pacey, Technology in World Civilization, 116.
43. A. E. Musson, “Industrial Motive Power in the United Kingdom, 1800–70,” Economic History Review, 29 (1976): 415–17; Mokyr, Gifts of Athena, 131–40.
44. Walter G. Moss, An Age of Progress?: Clashing Twentieth-Century Global Forces (New York, 2008), 74–75.
45. Adrian J. Randall, “The Philosophy of Luddism: The Case of the West of England Woolen Workers, ca. 1790–1809,” Technology and Culture, 27 (1986): 1–8; Mokyr, Gifts of Athena, 267; Jeff Horn, The Path Not Taken: French Industrialization in the Age of Revolution, 1750–1830 (Cambridge, 2006), 96–101.
46. Raphael Samuel, “Workshop of the World: Steam Power and Hand Technology in Mid-Victorian Britain,” History Workshop, no. 3 (1977).
47. Mokyr, Gifts of Athena, 87; Christine MacLeod, “James Watt, Heroic Invention and the Idea of the Industrial Revolution,” in Maxine Berg and Kristine Bruland, eds., Technological Revolutions in Europe: Historical Perspectives (Northampton, MA, 1998), 96–98.
48. Mokyr, Gifts of Athena, 48, 65, 72.
49. Jan De Vries, “The Industrious Revolution and the Industrial Revolution,” Papers Presented at the Fifty-third Annual Meeting of the Economic History Association (June 1994).
50. Adam Smith, An Enquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (New York, 1937 [Modern Library ed.]), 306, 3, 328.
51. Ibid., 13.
52. Thomas Paine, Common Sense, ed. Isaac Kramnick (London, 1976), 65–72, 228.
53. Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A History (New York, 2007), 24–32.
CHAPTER 6. THE ASCENT OF GERMANY AND THE UNITED STATES
1. Manu Goswami, Producing India: From Colonial Economy to National Space (Chicago, 2004), 67.
2. J. R. Harris, Industrial Espionage and Technology Transfer: Britain and France in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1998), 10–12, 355–56.
3. Gregory Clark, “Why Isn’t the Whole World Developed? Lessons from the Cotton Mills,” Journal of Economic History, 47 (1987): 141–42, 149. See also Joel Mokyr, “Editor’s Introduction: The New Economic History and the Industrial Revolution,” in Joel Mokyr, ed., The British Industrial Revolution (Oxford, 1999), esp. 126–27.
4. Alfred D. Chandler, Jr., Scale and Scope: The Dynamics of Industrial Capitalism (Cambridge, 1990), 3; Goswami, Producing India, 41; Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Capital, 1848–1875 (New York, 1996 [originally published in 1975]), 40–41; W. D.Rubinstein, “Cultural Explanations for Britain’s Economic Decline: How True,” in Bruce Collins and Keith Robbins, eds., British Culture and Economic Decline: Debates in Modern History (London, 1990), 70–71.
5. Harold James, A German Identity, 1770–1990 (London, 1989), 66.
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