Spaniards (españoles): Indian/Spanish mestizos, 53, 56; population, 57; with racial categories, 51–52, 54–55; in racial hierarchy, 53, 55, 56
“Spanish,” 13, 68
Special Proclamation (1865), 113–14
state citizenship, 78, 145, 174, 230n114; federal and, 45–47, 143, 205n154; racism and, 77, 81, 102
statehood, 233n170; citizenship and, 84, 194n22; language and, 75–76, 79; New Mexico, 11, 43, 75–82, 105, 195n27, 204n139, 211n122, 213n151; race and debate on, 73, 75–82, 213n151, 233n168; racism and, 11, 66, 73, 209n81, 210n106, 211n122, 212n137, 212n146; support for, 18, 46, 153, 194n21, 194n22, 195n27, 204n139
stereotypes, racial: Indians, 67; Mexican Americans and, 64, 65–66, 175, 188–89, 209n79, 209n86; women and, 27, 208n74
Streeby, Shelley, 21
St. Vrain, Charles, 37, 200n88
subordination, of blacks, 12, 143–45, 151, 230n110
Supreme Court, U.S., 99–100; Equal Protection Clause and, 178–79; land laws and, 129; on Pueblo Indians, 102
supreme courts, 40; New Mexico, 46, 219n62; territorial, 93, 97, 116; Texas, 70. See also Supreme Court, U.S.
Tafolla, Jesus María, 215n13
Tafoya, Felipe, 36
Tafoya, Rafael, 37
Tafoya, Sonya, 167, 235n45
Tafoya, Varua, 36
Taft, William H., 82
Taney, Roger B., 40, 141–43, 229n99, 230n103, 230n109, 230n110
Taos, New Mexico, 15, 32, 41, 214n169
Taos Pueblo, 30–31, 95–96, 218n58
Taos rebellion, 200n84, 214n169; with Bent, C., murder of, 15–16, 28–32, 37, 200n78, 201n100, 203n119; executions, 201n99; Price report on, 200n87, 201n90, 201n93, 201n96
Taylor, Zachary, 20, 22, 141, 229n97
Telles, Edward, 168, 186
territorial courts, 70–72, 93, 97, 116
territorial legislature, 93–94, 97–98
Territory of New Mexico, 23–25, 46–47, 71–72, 78
Texas, xix, 5, 70, 194n19, 194n23; borders, 228n88; citizenship restrictions and, 145–46; Mexican Cession and, 7, 194n18; slavery in, 18–19, 138–39, 196n13; statehood, 18, 194n22
Texas Rangers, 174, 236n12
Texas Supreme Court, 70
“They Wait for Us,” 27
Tienda, Marta, 165
Tillman, Benjamin, 154–55
Tórrez, Robert, 42, 196n2, 201n96, 201n99
tourism, 209n77, 214n167
translation, Spanish-English, 92, 94
treason: defined, 40; trials, 36–42
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), 149; federal citizenship and, 67, 86, 98–99, 142, 143, 146; property rights and, 130–31, 135, 226n40; Querétero Protocol and, 131, 226n44; role of, 4, 6, 18, 45, 67, 86, 205n149, 210n111, 214n4; with whiteness, 87–88, 98
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Griswold del Castillo), 204n143, 204n147, 205n152
Treaty of Paris, 77
trials, 202n104; attorneys, 36–37; colonial rule, 41–42; executions with, 15–16, 32, 201n99; in New Mexico under U.S. law, 32–43; in nineteenth century U.S., 34; Pueblo Indians and, 203n120; racism with, 35; in Santa Fe, 38–39; Sleepy Lagoon case (1942–43), 176, 180; with Spanish-English translation, 37, 92; in Taos, 36–38; treason, 36–39, 40–42; war of 1846–48, 35
tricultural harmony, 82–83, 214n168
“tri-ethnic trap,” 209n77
Trujillo, Antonio Maria, 38, 39
Trujillo, Juan Ramón, 37
Trump, Donald, xii–xx, xxiii, 187, 191n13, 192n20
Trump, Melania, xiv
Twitchell, Ralph Emerson, 200n82, 205n152, 217n41, 218n59
Ulibarri, Francisco, 36
United States (U.S.), xxii, 125, 128, 130, 134–36, 212n137; Border Patrol, 236n12; Court of Private Land Claims, 125, 128, 130, 134–36; Forest Service, 128; legal systems in nineteenth century, 34; with trials in Mexico under civil law, 32–43. See also Census, U.S.; military, U.S.; Supreme Court, U.S.; U.S.–Mexico War
United States v. Lucero, 98–100, 101
United States v. Ritchie, 230n109
United States v. Sandoval, 130, 136, 226n39
Uruguay, xviii
U.S. See United States
U.S.–Mexico War (1846–1848), 6, 197n41, 198n42, 198n43, 198n48, 199n62; outbreak of, 17–22; race and citizenship after, 43–47; with resistance to colonization, 22, 26–32; Taos rebellion, 28–32, 200n87, 201n90, 201n93, 201n96, 201n99, 201n100, 203n119; trials, 32–43; volunteer soldiers in, 21, 22
Utah, 5, 94, 139, 194n19, 195n27
Utes, 56, 90, 112
Van Cleve, Nicole Gonzalez, 188–89
Vargas, Nicholas, 184
Veeder, John, 135
Venezuela, xviii, 165
Vigil, Pedro, 39
Villaraigosa, Antonio, xi
volunteer soldiers, 21, 22
voting, xiii, xx, 97–98, 233n6
Voting Rights Act (1965), xiii
wages, 76, 89, 137, 188, 215n15, 228n77
Wah-to-Yah (Garrard), 196n3
Waldo, Henry L., 199n57, 200n82
Waldo, Lawrence, 29, 30, 200n82
Walker, Robert J., 19
Walter, Paul, 210n100
Warren, Earl, 178, 179
Washington, George, 60–61
Washington Post, 192n20
water rights, 224n8
Watts, John S., 99, 100, 101, 219n65
Weber, David, 96, 216n18
Weiner, Mark, 212n137, 230n115
Weinstein, Jack B., ix
Weston, Rubin Francis, 212n137
West Point Academy, 21, 197n32
Wheeler Peak, 15, 196n1
Whigs, 17, 19, 118, 139
White, Richard, 60, 117
whiteness, 98; Latinos and, 186–90; legal, 87–91, 124, 149; one-drop rule and, 12, 146–55; “psychological wages of,” 215n15; racial hierarchy and, 90–91, 232n156; racial identity and, 165. See also Mexican American elites
whites, 13, 208n55; assimilation of, 88; citizenship and, 230n114; Hispanics, 167; immigration, 91–92; in nonstate territory, 195n26; political divide among, xiv; population, 215n9; racial identity and, 165–68, 183–84, 235n41; residential segregation and, 88–89. See also non-whites; off-white
white supremacy, xiii, 5, 177, 208n55; with racism and dominant view, 65–67, 82, 83; with racism and progressive view, 11, 65, 73–75, 82–83; segregation and, 144–45
the White Caps (Las Gorras Blancas), 137
Who Is White? (Yancey), 235n41
Wilmot, David, 139
Wilmot Proviso, 139
Wilson, Pete, 190
Winant, Howard, xxii, 181
women, stereotypes of Mexican, 27, 52, 208n74
Wyoming, 5, 46, 194n19, 195n27
Yancey, George, 235n41
Zammouri. See Estevan
Zoot Suit Riots, 187
Zoraida Vázquez, Josefina, 196n13, 226n43
Zuni Pueblo, 50–51, 206n5
About the Cover
I am grateful to the Rockwell Museum of Western Art in Corning, New York, for permission to use Ernest L. Blumenschein’s stunning painting for the cover of Manifest Destinies and to my father for first drawing my attention to it (and having the prescience to suggest it would make the perfect book cover). I have added this comment because, over the course of the past decade, many people have asked to hear more about the painting.
Blumenschein considered Jury for Trial of a Sheepherder for Murder his best painting, and he surely intended it, at almost four feet tall, for traveling exhibitions.1 The inspiration for the painting was the 1927 trial, in Taos, of a Mexican American teen for the murder of an Anglo teacher visiting New Mexico from Texas. The defendant was a sheepherder who urged the jury to find him temporarily insane based on folklore that isolated herders sometimes experience disorientation and other ill effects due to lack of human contact. The jury presumably agreed that he was insane, finding him guilty of second-degree murder, though the judge, who was Anglo, reversed the jury and
sentenced the defendant to ninety-nine years in prison.2
The painting appears to depict twelve men seated in the jury box of a courtroom. In fact, Blumenschein posed them in his studio (now a museum in Taos), with its southwestern architectural style. The artist marked this official, American space with the faceless portrait of George Washington, juxtaposing that symbol of nationalism with the obvious Mexican ancestry of the Taos men. Though painted a few decades after New Mexico statehood, Jury captures the agency of the original Mexican Americans in New Mexico—where they served as jurors who checked Anglo judicial power, as legislators who found ways to reestablish principles of Mexican law in the United States, and as elected officials—as well as the idea that these men were marked as racial others, not fully American. It also reminds us that it was exclusively Mexican American men who had access to these roles.3
About the Author
Laura E. Gómez is Professor of Law, Sociology, and Chicana and Chicano Studies at the University of California, Los Angeles. She is the author of Misconceiving Mothers: Legislators, Prosecutors and the Politics of Prenatal Drug Exposure (1997) and the co-editor of Mapping “Race”: Critical Approaches to Health Disparities Research (2013), with Nancy López. She served as President of the Law and Society Association and published her presidential address as “Looking for Race in All the Wrong Places” in the Law & Society Review (2012). Her administrative roles at UCLA have included serving as Interim Dean of Social Sciences (2016–17), Vice Dean of the School of Law (2013–15), and Founding Co-director of the Critical Race Studies Program. She has been a principal investigator on grants from the National Science Foundation and the National Institutes for Health.
Manifest Destinies, Second Edition Page 41