The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation
Page 50
Gray, Elisha, 17–18, 98
Greene, Harold, 297–98, 299, 302
Gunther-Mohr, Robert, 305–6
Hagelbarger, David, 144, 148
Hagstrum, Homer, 201–2
Hartley, Ralph, 121
Hayes, Brian, 339
Hecht, Jeff, 259
Herriott, Donald, 256
Hewlett, Bill, 308
Hewlett-Packard, 308, 319
Hill, Charles, 179–80
Hoddeson, Lillian, 44, 79, 88, 105
Hoerni, Jean, 181
Holmdel, 213–17, 278, 281
Black Box, 284–85, 331, 338, 339, 340, 354
Crawford Hill, 214–18, 220, 223, 258, 259, 340
horn antenna, 173–74, 206, 207, 209, 215, 223
Howard Hughes Medical Institute, 354–55
How to Build and Fly Gliders (Pierce), 189, 190, 192, 200
Hughes Aircraft, 255
IBM, 348
Kelly as consultant for, 305–6
Imperial College of Science and Engineering, 141
information, 342
digital, 129–31, 185, 250–51
see also communication and messages
information theory, 125, 128–30, 135, 136, 141, 142, 149, 151, 185–86, 202, 281, 318–19
innovation, 152–53, 250, 260, 343–44
competition and, 352
energy, 355–56
at Janelia Farm, 355
Kelly’s approach to, 151–52, 186, 211, 343, 345, 347
mistakes in, 262
Morton on, 108–9, 113, 152
spurs to, 153
use of term, 107, 151–52
venture economy and, 347–48
innovation hubs, 355
innovator’s dilemma, 349–50
Institute of Radio Engineers, 203
integrated circuits, 253–54, 260, 261–62, 339
Intel, 290, 308, 341
Internet, 334, 335, 342
invention, 152–53
discovery vs., 106–7
individual genius vs. collaboration in, 133–35
Jakes, Bill, 212–18, 227, 280, 291–92, 295
Jakes, Mary, 214, 215, 216
James, Frank, 10
James, Jesse, 10
Janelia Farm, 354–55
Jansky, Karl, 106
Japan Prize, 359
Javan, Ali, 256
Jet Propulsion, 203
Jet Propulsion Laboratory, 210–11, 214, 215, 325
Jewett, Frank Baldwin, 16–19, 21, 24, 26, 27, 30, 31–33, 36–37, 45, 59, 64, 82, 83, 106, 157, 192, 246, 268, 300, 353, 356
as chairman, 78
Fletcher and, 24
Millikan and, 16–17, 22, 24
Murray Hill complex and, 76–77
transatlantic phone service and, 176
transcontinental phone service and, 21–22
Jobs, Steve, 357
Johns Hopkins University, 14
Johnson, Lyndon B., 223, 247, 248
Kahn, David, 125
Kao, Charles, 258–59, 261
Kappel, Frederick, 219, 220, 223, 231
Kasparov, Garry, 322
Keefauver, Bill, 239
Kelly, Joseph Fennimore, 9–10, 11
Kelly, Katherine, 16, 28, 155
Kelly, Mervin, 2, 3, 9–11, 13, 14, 24, 25, 26, 28–30, 32, 33, 36–38, 40, 41, 44–48, 51, 52, 59–71, 73–74, 78–81, 83, 85, 88, 108, 113–14, 127, 134, 141, 149–62, 163, 165, 169, 170, 172–73, 180, 183–85, 234, 236, 242–46, 249, 253, 266–67, 270–71, 274, 285, 300, 304–7, 311, 339, 342–43, 345–46, 352, 353
amplifier work and, 95–97
as Bell Labs executive vice president, 79, 156
as Bell Labs president, 156, 157
death of, 306–7
early life of, 9–10, 342
gardens of, 155–56, 304
as IBM consultant, 305–6
innovation as viewed by, 151–52, 186, 211, 343, 345, 347
interdisciplinary groups created by, 79–80
lectures about Bell labs given by, 149–52
military work of, 157–62, 307
Millikan and, 16
mobile phones and, 280
Murray Hill complex and, 75–78
Nobel Prize and, 181
Parkinson’s disease of, 306
Pierce and, 195–96, 306–7, 345–46
retirement of, 212, 304–5
Sandia Labs and, 159–60, 271
satellite project and, 210, 211–12, 220, 225
Shockley and, 56, 180–82
transatlantic phone cable and, 176–79
transistor and, 99, 101, 105, 108, 110–13, 180
vacuum tube work of, 33–36, 37, 82, 349
work habits of, 155, 156–57
Kennedy, John F., 224, 247, 248
Kilby, Jack, 251–54, 262
Killian, James, 157, 245
Kim, Jeong, 337–38, 343
Kleiner, Eugene, 181, 346
Kleiner Perkins, 346, 348
Kleinrock, Len, 317, 319
Kogelnik, Herwig, 256–57, 341, 345
Kompfner, Rudi, 198, 199, 201, 207, 210–14, 216, 217, 223, 256–58, 265, 275–77, 323–24, 341
death of, 324
fiber optics and, 259–60, 261, 277
Kwajalein, 293–94
Kyoto Prize, 322
Land, Edwin, 248
Landau, Henry, 190
language, 125–26
lasers, 207, 254–58, 261, 276–79, 341
Lewbel, Arthur, 320
Li, Tingye, 259
light, 275–76
infrared, 254–55
lasers, 207, 254–58, 261, 276–79, 341
optical communications, 256–61; see also fiber optics
Lilienthal, David, 160
Lillienfield, Julius, 101
linemen, 49
Lombardo, Guy, 218–19
Long Lines, 25, 173, 269, 301
Los Alamos, 159
Los Angeles Times, 314
Lucent, 335–37, 338, 340, 346
Lucky, Bob, 129, 131, 144, 265, 274, 332, 357, 359
on Baker, 238
Pierce and, 190–91
Macdonald, Stuart, 90, 108, 152
magnetron, 67–69, 70, 71
Maiman, Ted, 255–56
Manhattan Project, 4, 63, 64, 66, 134, 157, 356
Marconi, Guglielmo, 177
masers, 207, 208, 209, 254–55, 359
“Mathematical Theory of Communication, A” (Shannon), 127–32, 133
“Mathematical Theory of Cryptography, A” (Shannon), 124, 125, 131
Mathews, Max, 185–86, 225, 325–26
Mayo, John, 300, 302, 327, 331, 344, 348–50, 353
McCalley, Andrew, 39
McGowan, Bill, 271–72
MCI (Microwave Communications Inc.), 271–74, 299, 328
McMillan, Brock, 127, 132, 133, 136, 138, 156, 211
Mendel, Gregor, 134
messages, see communication and messages
Metcalfe, Robert, 264
Microsoft, 341, 353–54
Microwave Communications Inc. (MCI), 271–74, 299, 328
microwaves, 173–74, 202–3, 206, 207, 233, 288
military, 164, 173, 184, 246–47, 270
Advanced Research Projects Administration (ARPA), 210
Kelly and, 157–62, 307
Sandia Labs, 159–61, 271
World War I, 28, 29, 60
World War II, see World War II
Miller, Stewart, 258
Millikan, Robert, 14–16, 27, 28, 38, 43, 61, 144, 168, 192
Jewett and, 16–17, 22, 24
Kelly and, 16
oil-drop experiment of, 15–16, 22, 152, 267
missiles, 248
Nike, 160–61, 164, 182
MIT, 38, 68
Shannon as professor at, 145–47, 317–18, 319
Shockley as student at, 54–55, 56, 88
transistors and, 105–6
&n
bsp; mobile phones, 3, 131, 227, 233–34, 279–83, 284, 286–97, 335
Molnar, Julius, 236–37, 262, 263–64, 266–68
Monarch, 178, 179
Moore, Gordon, 181, 251, 290, 308–9
Moore, H. R., 96
Moore’s law, 308
Morse, Philip, 55, 71
Morse, Samuel F. B., 224
Morton, Jack, 108–9, 110, 112, 113, 116, 152, 163, 168, 170, 197, 210, 223, 250, 252, 253, 267, 311–13
Morton triode, 197
Motorola, 279–80, 295–96, 297
music, computer, 225, 244, 325–27
NASA, 208, 210–11, 215–17, 220, 221, 224, 248
National Academy of Sciences, 306, 311, 344
National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), 247, 261
National Security Agency (NSA), 147, 246, 247, 249, 342
Nature, 338
NCR, 333
Netscape, 334
New Scientist, 247
New Yorker, 192, 196, 242
New York Times, 31, 62, 64, 199, 222, 224, 233, 273, 301, 302, 337, 356
New York World’s Fair, 228–31, 262
Nike missiles, 160–61, 164, 182
Nobel Prize, 2, 14, 37, 43, 56, 181–82, 184, 244, 317, 322, 331, 355
noise, 292
Noll, Mike, 237, 243
Noyce, Robert, 181, 251, 252–54, 262, 290
nuclear weapons, 51, 59–60, 65–66, 74, 104, 159, 160, 356
Nyquist, Harry, 135
Odlyzko, Andrew, 334
Ohl, Russell, 84–85, 86
oil-drop experiment, 15–16, 22, 152, 267
Oliver, Barney, 126, 197, 319, 323, 358
O’Neill, Eugene, 221, 222
Oppenheimer, Robert, 155, 157
Organization Man, The (Whyte), 184
oscillating elements, 97, 104
O’Sullivan, William, 210
Packard, Dave, 308
pagers, 229, 287–88
Paine, Thomas, 12
patents, 46, 57, 98
licensing of, 182–83, 186, 251, 270
Nyquist and, 135
for telephone, 17–18, 98
for transistor, 97–100, 107, 111
PCM (pulse code modulation), 126–27, 129, 197, 234–35, 323
Pearson, Gerald, 87, 88, 91, 96, 112, 166, 171, 172, 316
Pfann, Bill, 114, 134
photography, digital, 261
photolithography, 251, 254
Physical Review, 100
Pickering, William, 210
Picturephone, 229–31, 233, 235, 236, 260, 262–65, 279, 289, 296, 333
Pierce, John, 2, 3, 38–39, 189–204, 212–13, 225–27, 232, 234, 238, 242, 246, 247, 249, 253, 265, 267, 273, 278, 285, 297, 300, 304, 311, 323–27, 332, 343, 344, 348–50, 352, 357–60
antitrust suit and, 273–74
Baker and, 238, 243–44
Brattain and, 197
at Caltech, 191–93, 324, 325
“Don’t Write: Telegraph,” 202–3
early life of, 191–92
How to Build and Fly Gliders, 189, 190, 192, 200
Japan Prize awarded to, 359
Kelly and, 195–96, 306–7, 345–46
lasers and, 255, 256, 258, 276
mobile phones and, 282–83
music and, 225, 244, 325–27
New York World’s Fair and, 228–31
Parkinson’s of, 323
Picturephone and, 230
retirement of, 267
satellite work of, 203–4, 205, 207–27, 228, 254
Shannon and, 196–97, 201, 225, 318, 323–24
Shockley and, 194–95, 197, 225
traveling wave tube and, 198–201, 202, 205–6, 207–8, 210
Wells and, 201–2
writing career of, 200–201, 202–3
Piore, Emmanuel, 306
plasma physics, 257
Playboy, 314
Poe, Edgar Allan, 124
Pollak, Henry, 123, 238, 239–40
Porter, Phil, 286, 287–88, 291, 294, 295
President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board (PFIAB), 247, 248
pulse code modulation (PCM), 126–27, 129, 197, 234–35, 323
Purdue University, 97, 100, 105
quantum mechanics, 42, 55, 81, 202
Quarles, Donald, 50
quartz, 51, 62
Rabi, Isidor Isaac, 43, 207
radar, 60, 64–67, 71, 73, 86, 134, 157, 195, 270, 294
Distant Early Warning line, 161, 182
magnetron and, 67–69, 70, 71
radio, 27, 47, 66–67, 76, 177, 255, 258, 279–80, 290, 292, 294
astronomy, 106
Raytheon, 163
RCA, 163, 251, 303, 348
Reader’s Digest, 178
Rice, Steve, 357
Ring, Doug, 281–82, 286
Riordan, Michael, 105, 354
Ross, Ian, 180, 221, 239, 245, 250–53, 270–71, 301, 309, 314, 327
Ross, Pearley, 53
Rowell, John, 154
rubber, 82, 242–43
Saarinen, Eero, 284–85
Sandia Labs, 159–61, 271
satellites, 203–4, 205, 207–27, 261
Communications Satellite Act and, 224
Echo, 212–20, 221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 244, 254, 323, 340
Explorer, 208
Sputnik, 208
Telstar, 220, 221–24, 225, 226, 228, 229, 340
Scaff, Jack, 84, 85, 86
Schawlow, Arthur, 254–55, 257
Schon, J. Hendrik, 337
Schrödinger, Erwin, 37
Schwartz, G. E., 63–64
Science, 331
Scientific American, 127, 137, 138, 200, 258, 321
Seattle, Century 21 Exposition in, 228–29
Seitz, Fred, 54–55, 245, 309
semiconductors, 83–86, 87, 90, 92–95, 97, 99, 101, 102, 151, 163, 169, 251–52, 276
Moore’s law and, 308
chips, 252–53, 308
Shannon, Betty, 133, 137, 138–39, 145, 146, 147, 318, 321, 322–23
Shannon, Claude Elwood, 2–3, 115–35, 136–48, 150, 184, 185, 226, 232, 234, 242, 243, 247, 250–51, 267, 292, 317–23, 341, 342, 350, 357
Alzheimer’s of, 322, 323
Baker and, 244
bust of, 340
in California, 146–47
chess program of, 136, 137–38, 143, 322
computing and, 117–18, 136–44
cryptography and, 124–25, 131, 141, 147
death of, 322
information theory of, 125, 128–30, 135, 136, 141, 142, 149, 151, 185–86, 202, 281, 318–19
juggling of, 145, 147, 148, 319–21, 323
Kyoto Prize awarded to, 322
labs named after, 335
letters to, 141, 147–48
master’s thesis of, 118, 123
as MIT professor, 145–47, 317–18, 319
as part-time employee at Bell Labs, 148
Pierce and, 196–97, 201, 225, 318, 323–24
radio interview with, 136–37
resignation from Bell Labs, 146, 147
stock market and, 319
Theseus Mouse project of, 138–40, 141, 323
ultimate machine of, 142–43
unfinished and unpublished papers of, 146, 323
unicycles of, 145
Shewhart, Walter, 49–50
Shive, John, 103
Shockley, Emma, 313
Shockley, William, 2, 38, 40, 41, 43, 44, 52–58, 59–60, 63, 68, 69, 71–74, 79, 81, 88, 89, 92, 95, 96, 108, 133, 134, 136, 149, 151, 163, 185, 186, 242, 266, 267, 285, 307–15, 317, 342, 347, 357, 358
amplifier work of, 57–58
at ASWORG, 71–72
Baker and, 313–14
at Caltech, 53–54, 192
as consultant at Bell Labs, 311–13
death of, 315
early life of, 53–54, 100–101
Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors, 112
&nb
sp; Elmendorf and, 312
“field effect” theory of, 90–91, 92, 101
Fisk and, 234, 313
Kelly and, 56
at MIT, 54–55, 56, 88
Morton and, 311–13
Murray Hill complex and, 75, 76
Nobel Prize awarded to, 2, 181–82, 244
Pierce and, 194–95, 197, 225
racial theories of, 2, 309–15
resignation from Bell Labs, 180–82, 307
solid-state work of, 43, 79, 83, 86–90, 92, 102, 103, 112
transistor work of, 99–105, 107, 110, 111, 115–16, 134, 135, 166–67, 168, 316
Shockley Semiconductor, 180–81, 225, 244–45, 251, 290, 308–9, 310, 314, 346
Shurkin, Joel, 72, 315
silicon, 83–86, 87, 93–95, 166–72, 252
diffused, 169–70, 171, 254
solar battery, 4, 170–72, 206, 208
Silicon Valley, 181, 308, 346–48
Singleton, Henry, 319
Skaade, Helvar, 54
Slepian, David, 132, 141, 143, 148, 357
Smith, Walter Bedell, 141
solar battery, 4, 170–72, 206, 208
solid circuits, 253
solid-state physics, 43, 79, 80, 81, 86–91, 92, 102, 103, 105, 112, 134, 150–51
Sommerfeld, Arnold, 42
sonar, 65
Soviet Union, 246–47
Sputnik satellite of, 208
Sparks, Morgan, 110
Sputnik, 208
Stanford University, 181
steam engine time, 289
Stibbitz, George, 123
stimulated emission, 206–7, 254
submarines, 71, 80, 88
Sullivan, Mark, 174
Summit University, 347
surface states, 92–93
switching, 52, 97, 117, 118, 123, 136, 155, 232, 250, 252, 339
electronic, 229, 231–34, 235, 260, 261, 290–91
Szilard, Leo, 60
Tanenbaum, Morris, 166–70, 181, 251, 253–54, 299, 300, 302, 351–52
TASI (Time Assignment Speech Interpolation), 183–84
TAT-1, 175–80
Teal, Gordon, 86–87, 109–10, 168
Telecommunications Act, 328–29
Teledyne, 319
telegraph, 126, 224, 260
telephones, 17–19, 126, 134, 155, 260, 263
carbon granules in, 12, 20
diaphragms in, 82
long-distance calling, 20–24, 33–34, 37, 47, 173–74, 175–80, 229
mobile, 3, 131, 227, 233–34, 279–83, 284, 286–97, 335
outdoor equipment for, 50
patent for, 17–18, 98
PCM and, 126–27, 129
problems with, 47–48
sheathing on cables for, 242
touch-tone buttons on, 229, 233
transatlantic service, 37, 175–80, 183–84, 203, 205, 211
Teletype, 49
television, 220, 283
Telstar, 220, 221–24, 225, 226, 228, 229, 340
Temin, Peter, 269
Terman, Frederick, 181, 347
Tesla, Nikola, 12
Texas Instruments, 251, 252
Theseus, 138–40, 141, 323