18. Ashwood, “The Birth of the Universal Negro Improvement Association,” 225.
19. Lionel Yard argues that Ashwood was cofounder of the UNIA while historian Tony Martin insists that Ashwood’s account was “probably fictional.” See Lionel Yard, Biography of Amy Ashwood, 1897–1969: Co-founder of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (Washington, D.C.: Associated Publisher, 1990); Tony Martin, Amy Ashwood Garvey: Pan-Africanist, Feminist and Mrs. Garvey Number 1 (Dover, Mass.: Majority Press, 2008), 2.
20. See Yard, Biography of Amy Ashwood.
21. Martin, Amy Ashwood Garvey, 37.
22. Ula Taylor, “Street Strollers: Grounding the Theory of Black Women Intellectuals,” Afro-Americans in New York Life and History 30, no. 2 (July 2006): 153–71. For an excellent overview of black women’s intellectual history, see Mia Bay, Farah J. Griffin, Martha S. Jones, and Barbara D. Savage, ed., Toward an Intellectual History of Black Women (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).
23. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, XI:115.
24. Taylor, “Street Strollers,” 159.
25. Taylor, “Street Strollers,” 158; Taylor, The Veiled Garvey, 44. Bair, “True Women, Real Men”; Satter, “Marcus Garvey, Father Divine,” 43–76; Honor Ford-Smith, “Women and the Garvey Movement in Jamaica,” in Garvey: His Work and Impact, ed. Rupert Lewis and Patrick Bryan (Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press, 1991).
26. On respectability, see Evelyn Brooks-Higginbotham, Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993); Victoria Wolcott, Remaking Respectability: African American Women in Interwar Detroit (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2001); Cheryl Hicks, Talk with You Like a Woman: African American Women, Justice, and Reform in New York, 1890–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010).
27. Martin, Amy Ashwood Garvey, 74; Marc Matera, Black London: The Imperial Metropolis and Decolonization in the Twentieth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), 100–144.
28. Matera, Black London, 28–29, 105–7; Hakim Adi, “Amy Ashwood and the Nigerian Progress Union,” in Gendering the African Diaspora: Women, Culture, and Historical Change in the Caribbean and Nigerian Hinterland, ed. Judith A. Byfield, LaRay Denzer, and Antea Morrison (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2010).
29. Martin, Race First, 15–16.
30. McDuffie, “ ‘I Wanted a Communist Philosophy,’ ” 184.
31. Queen Mother Moore, “The Black Scholar Interviews: Queen Mother Moore,” Black Scholar 4, nos. 6–7 (March–April 1973): 47–55. Moore recounts this story on various occasions and offers slightly altered versions. See Brian Lanker, I Dream a World: Portraits of Black Women Who Changed America (New York: Stewart, Tabori and Chang, 1989), 106–7; Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, “Interview with Audley (Queen Mother) Moore,” in The Black Women Oral History Project, ed. Ruth Edmonds Hill (London: Meckler, 1991), 8:111–201.
32. Moore, “The Black Scholar Interviews,” 52. Jahi Issa’s study indicates that Marcus Garvey visited Louisiana in 1922, not in 1920, as Moore recalled. See Issa, “The Universal Negro Improvement Association in Louisiana: Creating a Provisional Government in Exile” (Ph.D. diss., Howard University, 2005), 122.
33. Dionne Brand, ed., No Burden to Carry: Narratives of Black Working Women in Ontario, 1920s to 1950s (Toronto: Women’s Press, 1991), 37–50.
34. Brand, No Burden to Carry, 40–41, 44.
35. “Mrs. Lucy Lastrappe’s History,” New Negro World, October 1942.
36. Martha Vicinus, ed., Suffer and Be Still: Women in the Victorian Age (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972); Nancy Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: ‘Women’s Sphere’ in New England, 1780–1835 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977); Glenna Matthews, Just a Housewife: The Rise and Fall of Domesticity in American Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987).
37. Rosalyn Terbog-Penn, African American Women and the Struggle for the Vote, 1850–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998).
38. Paula Baker, “The Domestication of Politics: Women and American Political Society, 1780–1920,” American Historical Review 89, no. 3 (June 1984): 620–47. On black women’s political involvement in black women’s clubs and other religious and fraternal community associations and organizations, see Paula Giddings, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (New York: Morrow, 1984); White, Too Heavy a Load.
39. Lee Sartain, Invisible Activists: Women of the Louisiana NAACP and the Struggle for Civil Rights, 1915–1945 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007); Merline Pitre, In Struggle Against Jim Crow: Lulu B. White and the NAACP, 1900–1957 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1999).
40. James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia, 138.
41. Rosalyn Terbog-Penn, African American Women in the Struggle for the Vote (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 100.
42. Quoted in Julie A. Gallagher, Black Women and Politics in New York City (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 34.
43. Gallagher, Black Women and Politics in New York City, 33; Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, XI:796.
44. Quoted in Gallagher, Black Women and Politics in New York City, 33.
45. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, X:658; New York, Naturalization Records, 1897–1944, National Archives, Washington, D.C.; Petitions for Naturalization from the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York, 1897–1944, Series M1972, Roll 530, Ancestry.com subscription database, http://www.ancestry.com (accessed July 8, 2013); Collins migrated to the United States in 1919. See 1930 U.S. Census Records, Manhattan, N.Y., Ancestry.com subscription database, http://www.ancestry.com (accessed July 8, 2013).
46. Irma Watkins-Owens, Blood Relations: Caribbean Immigrants and the Harlem Community, 1900–1930 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996); James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia.
47. James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia, 12.
48. James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia, 49; Mae Ngai, Impossible Subjects: Illegal Aliens and the Making of Modern America (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004).
49. James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia, 12.
50. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, X:685.
51. On the Black Star Line, see Ramla M. Bandele, Black Star, African American Activism in the International Political Economy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008).
52. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, X:685; Tiffany Gill, Beauty Shop Politics: African American Women’s Activism in the Beauty Industry (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2010), 57–58.
53. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, X:685. The Garvey Club of New York was a division of the UNIA that remained loyal to Garvey after the organizational split of 1929. See Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, VII:19.
54. See Huggins, Harlem Renaissance; Lewis, When Harlem Was in Vogue; Baker, Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance.
55. On Black Harlem during the 1920s, see Shannon King, Whose Harlem Is This Anyway? Community Politics and Grassroots Activism During the New Negro Era (New York: New York University Press, 2015); LaShawn Harris, Sex Workers, Psychics, and Numbers Runners: Black Women in New York City’s Underground Economy (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2016).
56. Taylor, Veiled Garvey, 27.
57. Amy Jacques Garvey, ed., The Philosophy and Opinions of Marcus Garvey, Part I (Patterson, N.J.: Frank Cass and Company Limited, 1923), xxxiii.
58. Karen Adler, “ ‘Always Leading Our Men in Service and Sacrifice’: Amy Jacques Garvey, Feminist Black Nationalist,” Gender and Society 6 (1992): 354.
59. Taylor, Veiled Garvey, 64–90; Mark D. Matthews, “ ‘Our Women and What They Think’: Amy Jacques Garvey and the Negro World,” Black Scholar 10, nos. 8–9 (1979): 2–18.
60. Monroe Alphus Majors, Noted Negro Women: Their Triumphs and
Activities (Chicago: Donohue and Henneberry, 1893), 102; William Seraile, “Henrietta Vinton Davis and the Garvey Movement,” Afro-Americans in New York Life and History 7, no. 2 (July 1983): 7–24; Natanya Duncan, “If Our Men Hesitate Then the Women of the Race Must Come Forward: Henrietta Vinton Davis and the UNIA in New York,” New York History 94, no. 1 (Fall 2015): 558–83.
61. Eric Yellin, Racism in the Nation’s Service: Government Workers and the Color Line in Woodrow Wilson’s America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013).
62. Majors, Noted Negro Women; Seraile, “Henrietta Vinton Davis and the Garvey Movement.”
63. Seraile, “Henrietta Vinton Davis and the Garvey Movement,” 9.
64. Seraile, “Henrietta Vinton Davis and the Garvey Movement,” 7–24.
65. Barbara Bair, “Renegotiating Liberty: Garveyism, Women, and Grassroots Organizing in Virginia,” in Women of the American South: A Reader, ed. Christie Farnham (New York: New York University Press, 1997), 228.
66. Courtney Morris, “Becoming Creole, Becoming Black: Migration, Diasporic Self-Making, and the Many Lives of Madame Maymie Leona Turpeau de Mena,” Women, Gender, and Families of Color 4, no. 2 (Fall 2016): 171–95; Author’s interviews with Mwariama Kamau, January 16, 2013, and July 28, 2013; David Dewitt Turpeau Sr., Up from the Cane Breaks: An Autobiography (Cincinnati, Ohio: D. D. Turpeau, 1942); 1880 U.S. Census Records, 1st Ward, St. Martin, La. (Enumeration District 033), Ancestry.com subscription database, http://www.ancestry.com (accessed April 10, 2014).
67. Turpeau, Up from the Cane Breaks, 19; 1880 U.S. Census Records, 1st Ward, St. Martin, La. (Enumeration District 033), Ancestry.com subscription database, http://www.ancestry.com (accessed April 10, 2014).
68. Turpeau, Up from the Cane Breaks, 14.
69. Turpeau, Up from the Cane Breaks, 18.
70. 1912, New Orleans, Passenger Lists, 1813–1963, Ancestry.com subscription database, http://www.ancestry.com (accessed April10, 2014); Morris, “Becoming Creole, Becoming Black.”
71. Lara Putman, Radical Moves: Caribbean Migrants and the Politics of Race in the Jazz Age (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 37.
72. Bair, “True Women, Real Men,” 162.
73. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, XI:117.
74. Bair, “Renegotiating Liberty,” 226, 228–30.
75. Rina Okonkwo, “Adelaide Casely Hayford: Cultural Nationalist and Feminist,” Phylon 42, no. 1 (March 1981): 41–51; Barbara Bair, “Pan-Africanism as Process: Adelaide Casely Hayford,” in Imagining Home: Class, Culture, and Nationalism in the African Diaspora, ed. Sidney J. Lemelle and Robin D. G. Kelley (London: Verso, 1991); Adelaide M. Crawford, An African Victorian Feminist: The Life and Times of Adelaide Smith Casely, 1868–1960 (London: Routledge, 1986).
76. Quoted in Okonkwo, “Adelaide Casely Hayford,” 43.
77. Quoted in Okonkwo, “Adelaide Casely Hayford,” 44
78. Quoted in Okonkwo, “Adelaide Casely Hayford,” 46.
79. Adelaide Casely Hayford to Margaret Murray Washington, November 28, 1922, Papers of Mary Church Terrell, Moorland Springarn Research Center, Washington, D.C., Box 102–12, Folder 240. On racial uplift, see Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
80. Ford-Smith, “Women and the Garvey Movement in Jamaica”; Bair, “True Women, Real Men.”
81. Barbara Bair, “ ‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands unto God’: Laura Kofey and the Gendered Vision of Redemption in the Garvey Movement,” in A Mighty Baptism: Race, Gender, and the Creation of American Protestantism, ed. Susan Juster and Lisa MacFarlane (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996); Bair, “True Women, Real Men”; Satter, “Marcus Garvey, Father Divine.”
82. Natanya Duncan, “The ‘Efficient Womanhood’ of the Universal Negro Improvement Association, 1919–1930” (Ph.D. diss., University of Florida, 2009), 125; Bair, “True Women, Real Men,” 157. Also see Anne Macpherson, “Colonial Matriarchs: Garveyism, Materialism and Belize’s Black Cross Nurses, 1920–1952,” Gender and History 15, no. 3 (November 2003): 507–27; Leah Michelle Seabrook, “Service in Green and White: The Activity and Symbolism of the Universal African Black Cross Nurses” (M.A. thesis, University of California Irvine, 2006).
83. Bair, “Renegotiating Liberty,” 226.
84. Claudrena Harold, The Rise and Fall of the Garvey Movement in the Urban South, 1918–1942 (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2007), 37.
85. Bair, “True Women, Real Men,” 157.
86. Phillip A. Howard, Black Labor, White Sugar: Caribbean Braceros and the Struggles for Power (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University, 2015), 187–90.
87. MacPherson, “Colonial Matriarchs,” 508–10, 517. On materialist politics, see Linda Gordon, “Black and White Visions of Welfare: Women’s Welfare Activism, 1890–1945,” Journal of American History 78, no. 2 (September 1991): 559–90; Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, eds., Mothers of a New World: Maternalist Politics and the Origins of the Welfare States (New York: Routledge, 1996).
88. Bair, “True Women, Real Men,” 157.
89. Rupert Lewis, Marcus Garvey: Anti-Colonial Champion (London: Karia, 1987), 68.
90. Bair, “ ‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands unto God,’ ” 39–45; Lewis, Marcus Garvey, 68.
91. Bair, “ ‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands unto God,’ ” 45.
92. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, IV:1037.
93. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, IV:1037.
94. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, IV:1037.
95. James, Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia, 138–40.
96. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, IV:1037.
97. Taylor, Veiled Garvey, chap. 4; Matthews, “Our Women and What They Think.”
98. Saydee Parham, “The New Woman,” Negro World, February 2, 1924.
99. Blanche Hall, “Woman’s Greatest Influence Is Socially,” Negro World, October 4, 1924.
100. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, VI:418.
101. Carrie Mero Leadett, “The Negro Girl of Today Has Become a Follower—Future Success Rests with Her Parents and Home Environment,” Negro World, February 2, 1924.
102. Florence Bruce, “The Great Work of the Negro Woman Today,” Negro World, December 27, 1924.
103. Martin, Race First, 14.
104. Amy Jacques Garvey, “No Sex in Brains and Ability,” Negro World, December 27, 1924.
105. Amy Jacques Garvey, “Black Women’s Resolve for 1926,” Negro World, January 9, 1926.
106. Taylor, Veiled Garvey, 2.
107. “The Ideal Wife,” Negro World, April 5, 1924.
108. Barbara Welter, “The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820–1860,” American Quarterly 18, no. 2 (Summer 1966): 151–74; Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood.
109. McDuffie, “ ‘I Wanted a Communist Philosophy,’ ” 183.
110. Taylor, Veiled Garvey, 69.
111. Eva Aldred-Brooks, “An Appeal for Race Solidarity,” Negro World, July 4, 1925.
112. Saydee E. Parham, “Women’s Part in Nationhood,” Negro World, November 22, 1924.
113. Louise J. Edwards, “The New Day Appears,” Negro World, June 12, 1926.
114. Tera W. Hunter, “Feminist Consciousness and Black Nationalism: Amy Jacques Garvey and Women in the Universal Negro Improvement Association” (Unpublished paper presented at Women’s History Research Seminar, Yale University, 1983).
115. Amy Jacques Garvey, “What Some Women of the Race Has Accomplished,” Negro World, June 7, 1924.
116. Jacques Garvey, “What Some Women of the Race Has Accomplished.”
117. Leadett, “The Negro Girl of Today.”
118. Adler, “Always Leading Our Men in Service and Sacrifice,” 358.
119. Amy Jacques Garvey to Richard Newman, January 31, 1972, Laura Adorkor Kofey Research Collection, 1926–1981, Box 1, Folder 8, New
York Public Library at Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York, New York.
120. Bair, “ ‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands unto God,’ ” 55.
121. Richard Newman, “ ‘Warrior Mother of Africa’s Warriors of the Most High God’: Laura Adorkor Kofey and the African Universal Church,” in This Far by Faith: Readings in African-American Women’s Religious Biography, ed. Richard Newman and Judith Weisenfeld (New York: Routledge, 1996); Bair, “ ‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands unto God’ ”; Natanya Duncan, “Princess Laura Kofey and the Reverse Atlantic Experience,” in The American South and the Atlantic World, ed. Brian Ward, Martyn Bone, and William A. Link (Gainesville: University of Florida, 2013).
122. Quoted in Newman, “ ‘Warrior Mother of Africa’s Warriors of the Most High God,’ ” 113.
123. Bair, “ ‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands unto God,’ ” 54–56.
124. Newman, “ ‘Warrior Mother of Africa’s Warriors of the Most High God,’ ” 111.
125. J. A. Craigen Western Union telegram to Marcus Garvey, September 20, 1927, Gershon E. Harris/Garvey Club Collection, Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library, New York, N.Y.
126. Quoted in Bair, “ ‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands unto God,’ ” 56.
127. Newman, “ ‘Warrior Mother of Africa’s Warriors of the Most High God,’ ” 113.
128. Duncan, “Princess Laura Kofey and the Reverse Atlantic Experience,” 221.
129. Bair, “ ‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands unto God,’ ” 58.
130. Bair, “ ‘Ethiopia Shall Stretch Forth Her Hands unto God,’ ” 58.
131. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, VII:10, 14.
132. Martin, Race First, 18.
133. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, VII:311–12.
134. Martin, Race First, 18; Wilson Jeremiah Moses, Creative Conflict in African American Thought (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 282.
135. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, VII:317, 342.
136. Hill, Marcus Garvey and the UNIA Papers, VII:317.
137. Seraile, “Henrietta Vinton Davis and the Garvey Movement,” 19.
Set the World on Fire Page 27