A SOURCEBOOK ON
NATURALIST THEATRE
A Sourcebook on Naturalist Theatre provides essential primary sources which document one of the key movements in modern theatre. Christopher Innes has selected three writers to exemplify the movement, and six plays in particular
•
Henrik Ibsen – A Doll’s House and Hedda Gabler
•
Anton Chekhov – The Seagull and The Cherry Orchard
•
George Bernard Shaw – Mrs Warren’s Profession and Heartbreak House
Innes’ illuminating introduction provides a fascinating overview of naturalist theatre. Key themes include:
•
the representation of women
•
significant contemporary issues
•
the links between theory, playwriting and stage practice
•
the use of ideas as the basis for action and character.
The primary sources explore many aspects of Naturalism, among them:
•
the dramatists’ aims
•
the first staging of each play
•
public reception
This is a must-have volume for all students studying theatre.
Christopher Innes is Distinguished Research Professor at York University, Toronto. Among his recent books are Modern British Drama: 1890–1990 and Avant Garde Theatre: 1892–1992.
A SOURCEBOOK ON
NATURALIST THEATRE
Edited and introduced by
Christopher Innes
First published 2000 by Routledge
Published 2014 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Transferred to Digital Printing 2007
© 2000 Selection and editorial matter Christopher Innes
The right of Christopher Innes to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
Typeset in Baskerville by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Innes, C. D.
A sourcebook on naturalist theatre / Christopher Innes.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Drama—19th century—History and criticism. 2. Naturalism in literature. 3. Ibsen, Henrik, 1828-1906—Sources. 4. Chekhov, Anton Pavlovich, 1860-1904—Sources. 5. Shaw, Bernard, 1856-1950—
Sources. I. Title.
PN 1851.156 2000
809.2′912—dc21 99-39133
CIP
ISBN 978-0-415-15228-0 (hbk)
ISBN 978-0-415-15229-7 (pbk)
Publisher’s Note
The publisher has gone to great lengths to ensure the quality of this reprint but points out that some imperfections in the original may be apparent
CONTENTS
Illustrations
Acknowledgements
1
INTRODUCTION
Note on documentation
Theoretical approaches
Definitions
The historical context
Acting and character
Conventions and perspectives
Key themes
The naturalistic movement
Questioning the canon
2
THE CONTEXT OF NATURALIST THEATRE: A CHRONOLOGY
3
CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF NATURALISM
1
Georg Brandes and Henrik Ibsen
2
Émile Zola and André Antoine
3
Anton Chekhov and Konstantin Stanislavsky
4
Bernard Shaw
4
HENRIK IBSEN: 1828–1906
1
Context
2
Ibsen’s naturalistic drama
3
A Doll’s House
The play
Chronology of major early performances
Performance and reception
4
Hedda Gabler
The play
Chronology of major early performances
Performance and reception
5
ANTON CHEKHOV: 1860–1904
1
Context
2
Chekhov’s naturalistic drama
3
The Seagull
The play
Chronology of major early performances
Performance and reception
4
The Cherry Orchard
The play
Chronology of major early performances
Performance and reception
6
BERNARD SHAW: 1856–1950
1
Context
2
Shaw’s naturalistic drama
3
Mrs Warren’s Profession
The play
Chronology of major early performances
Performance and reception
4
Heartbreak House
The play
Chronology of major early performances
Performance and reception
SELECTED CRITICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
Henrik Ibsen
Anton Chekhov
Bernard Shaw
Index
ILLUSTRATIONS
Cover illustration, Toulouse-Lautrec: poster for Antoine's Théâtre Libre 1985
4.1
A Doll’s House, Royal Theatre, Copenhagen: 1879. The ‘tarantella’ scene in Act II with Betty Hennings
4.2
Studio portrait of Elizabeth Robins as Hedda Gabler, London, 1891
The Seagull, Moscow Art Theatre: 1898 (directed by Stanislavsky)
5.1
Nina’s performance in Act I
5.2
The dining room of Act III
5.3
The reversed view of Act IV: study with dining room beyond
5.4
Stanislavsky’s floor plan for Act III
5.5
Stanislavsky’s floor plan for Act IV
The Cherry Orchard, Moscow Art Theatre: 1904 (directed by Stanislavsky)
5.6
The return in Act I
5.7
Landscape and graveyard in Act II
5.8
Lopakhin’s announcement in Act III
5.9
The departure in Act IV
Mrs Warren’s Profession, The Stage Society, London: 1902 (directed by Bernard Shaw, performed without scenery)
6.1
In rehearsal: Bernard Shaw with Vivie (Madge Mcintosh) and Mrs Warren (Fanny Brough)
6.2
The capitalist and the Lovers, Act III: Granville Barker and Madge Mcintosh with Charles Goodheart
6.3
The confrontation in Act IV: Chrystal Herne and Mary Shaw
Heartbreak House, Garrick Theatre, New York: 1920, and London 1921 (directed by Bernard Shaw)
&
nbsp; 6.4
Ellie Dunn and Captain Shotover, Act I
6.5
Waiting for the bombs in Act III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am most grateful to the following publishers for permission to reprint extracts from the works cited below. I should also like to express particular gratitude to the authors who have allowed me to use their work — Albert Bermel, Bernard Dukore, Susan Mason, Anne-Lise Seip, Evert Sprinchorn — and to the family of Laurence Kitchin.
All extracts from the writings of Bernard Shaw are reproduced by permission of The Society of Authors.
Charles Archer, William Archer, Allen & Unwin, an imprint of HarperCollins.
Georg Brandes, Inaugural Lecture, trans. Evert Sprinchorn. Originally published in The Theory of the Modern Stage (ed. Eric Bentley), Penguin, 1968.
Basil Dmytryshyn, Imperial Russia: A Sourcebook 1700–1917, Holt, Reinhart, and Winston, 1967, currently being reissued by Academic International Press.
Bernard Dukore, Bernard Shaw: Director, Allen & Unwin, 1971.
Elizabeth Hapgood, ed. “Stanislavki’s Letters,” Stanislavskys Legacy, Theatre Arts Books, 1943.
Michael Heim, trans. “Letters of Anton Chekhov,” Anton Chekhov’s Life and Thought, (ed. Simon Karlinsky), Northwestern University Press. Originally published by Harper 0 and Row 0, 1973.
B.J. Hovde, The Scandinavian Countries, 1720–1865, Kennikat Press. Originally published by Cornell University Press, 1943.
Henrik Ibsen, Ibsen Letters and Speeches, trans. Evert Sprinchorn, Hill 0 and Wang 0, 1964.
Henrik Ibsen, “Notes for Hedda Gabler,” trans. Evert Sprinchorn, originally published in Playwrights on Playwriting, Hill and Wang, 1961.
Laurence Kitchin, Mid-Century Drama, Faber and Faber, 1960.
Susan Mason, Ibsen’s Women: The Acting in Early Norwegian Productions, unpublished Ph.D dissertation, University of Oregon, 1980.
Vsevolod Meyerhold, “Letter,” trans. Nora Beeson, Tulane Drama Review (25, vol. 9, no. 1).
Anne-Lise Seip, “Culture in the Norwegian Nation-State in the Nineteenth Century,” Scandinavian Journal of History (1995, vol. 20, no. 1).
Konstantin Stanislavsky, My Life in Art, trans. J.J. Robbins, Penguin, 1967.
Konstantin Stanislavsky, An Actor Prepares, trans. Elizabeth Hapgood, Theatre Arts Books, 1936.
Émile Zola, Naturalism, in the Theatre, trans. Albert Bermel. Originally published in Theory of the Modern Stage (ed. Eric Bentley), Penguin, 1968.
Photographs come from the collection of John Styan, and from the Raymond Mander and Joe Mitchenson Theatre Collection — to both of whom I am deeply grateful. I should also like to thank Allana Lindgren, who acted as my research assistant on this project.
The following works are either out of copyright, or could not be tracked down:
Andre Antoine, “Commentary on la mise en scene,” trans. Joseph M. Bernstein, Directors on Directing, (eds Toby Cole and Helen Chinoy), Bobbs-Merrill, 1953.
S.D. Balukhaty, ed. The Seagull Produced by Stanislavsky, trans. David Magarshack, Dennis Dobson, 1952.
Constance Garnett, Chekhov’s Letters to Olga Knipper, Chatto and Windus, 1925.
Emma Goldman, The Traffic in Women, Mother Earth Publishing, 1917.
Henrik Ibsen, The Letters of Henrik Ibsen, trans. Mary Morrison, Hodder & Stoughton, 1905.
Henrik Ibsen, “Notes for a Doll’s House,” From Ibsen’s Workshop, The Works of Henrik Ibsen, Charles Scribner, 1912.
Vladimir Nemirovich-Denchenko, My Life in the Russian Theatre, trans. John Cournos, Little Brown & Co, 1936.
Elizabeth Robins, Ibsen and the Actress, Hogarth Press, 1928.
Michel St Denis, Theatre: The Rediscovery of Style, Heinemann, 1960.
Henri Troyat, Daily Life in Russia, trans. Malcolm Barnes, Allen & Unwin, 1961.
1
INTRODUCTION
The aim of this sourcebook is to provide documentation on one of the key movements in modern theatre. Naturalism is not only a historical style, which reached the stage in the last decades of the nineteenth century. It forms the basis for mainstream plays and performances throughout the modern period, and is still the dominant theatrical form today. Indeed, Naturalism introduced a quintessentially modern approach, and defined the qualities of modern drama. Revolutionary in its own time, it has become the standard against which all subsequent stylistic experiments have measured themselves, and therefore deserves particular attention.
One characteristic of modern theatrical movements is a close link between theory, play writing, and stage practice. Theatrical Naturalism, developed from earlier naturalistic novels and preceded by theoretical essays, initiated this trend. Other crucial elements are the serious dramatic treatment of significant contemporary social issues, and the use of ideas as the basis for action and character. Again, both these elements were introduced by Naturalism. In addition, naturalist drama is particularly important in the way it represents women, setting a strikingly contemporary tone.
As a public art, the theatre is even more closely connected to the events and social concerns of its time than other artistic forms. It also reflects technological advances in the mechanics of staging. These general qualities – very much emphasized in theatre throughout the twentieth century – became particularly central to Naturalism, and are highlighted in the documentation. Since all artistic or literary movements are defined by individual works that incorporate their principles, key plays by three of the most important and influential writers have been selected to exemplify naturalist drama. To give a sense of development, two plays have been chosen from each writer’s work: his first major naturalistic play, and one from later in his career. This enables us to see the parameters of the movement, as well as exploring specific theatrical events in depth. The documentation focuses on the dramatist’s aims with respect to each play, its first staging, and the public reception – as well as illustrating the background, the theoretical basis, and (where relevant) the work of directors or theatre companies closely identified with each.
Unlike other published collections of documents, which are either limited to a single playwright, or reprint statements by a wide range of writers, the focus on three representative playwrights facilitates comparison, while also providing detailed material on individual works. It allows wider stylistic issues to be addressed, and sets the plays in their theatrical and cultural context. The selection of playwrights is also designed to challenge preconceptions.
NOTE ON DOCUMENTATION
This sourcebook contains a wide variety of different kinds of document. There are the theoretical writings and statements of principle. There is the material surrounding the composition, original production, and reception of each play – both written and visual. There are political and social documents from the period. In addition some contemporary sociological or critical analyses have been included, to provide factual material not readily accessible in historical documents.
Like all historical data, the writings themselves vary in documentary status. At one end of the scale are what might be called primary documents: for instance essays that influenced the naturalistic writers, establishing the principles of the movement; political manifestoes; working notes made by a dramatist in composing a play; or promptbooks recording a specific production. However, even these should not be read as wholly objective evidence – promptbooks, for instance, present a single, personal interpretation of a play; and although this itself may have documentary significance (as in the case of Stanislavsky) it might still not correspond to the playwright’s concept. Similarly a playwright’s letters can clarify authorial intention, but a play may well signify more than its author’s concept and change its meaning depending on the context brought to it by spectator or reader. At the other end of the scale are reviews of performances, by definition subjective and seldom representing the general response of the audience – which still have documentary importance to the degree that they mould public opinion. In add
ition, an element of subjective judgement has necessarily been introduced in editing these documents to bring out the essential points of their authors as clearly as possible.
A further issue that should be taken into account is the nature of translation. Since the roots of the naturalistic movement were in France and Scandinavia, spreading to Germany and Russia, as well as England and America, a large percentage of the documents included were originally written in languages other than English. Even the best translator is likely to miss or substitute nuances. Then too, the longer the time between the original document and the translation, the more the overall tone is likely to have been updated; in general, where a choice of translations exist, the earliest has been preferred.
The nature of the visual documentation is equally variable. Visual documentation from the end of the nineteenth century and the early decades of the twentieth century lacks the degree of authenticity assumed for modern photography. It was not until the mid-1920s that camera speeds were fast enough to record actors in performance, the first example being Basil Dean’s spectacular Hassan in 1924. Until then actors were required to hold a pose, motionless, for a period – in the 1880s and 1890s – of over a minute. In addition the technical quality of stage lighting made it hard to achieve sharply defined images on film which led in some cases to outlines being inked in on a photograph.
As a result, any photographs relating to early productions of Ibsen’s plays are extremely rare. The one of A Doll’s House is an exception, demonstrating the immediate impact and public importance of the play. More often at this time the only photographs are studio pictures, recording the actor in costume – as with Elizabeth Robins as Hedda Gabler – while visual evidence of the staging is limited to impressionistic (and often highly inaccurate) artists’ sketches published in illustrated journals. The increased number of photos available for productions of Chekhov, or for Shaw’s Heartbreak House, as camera technology advanced is directly reflected here. However, being posed, even the images from 1920 or 1921 cannot necessarily be taken as an accurate representation of acting style. What they do clearly document is blocking (e.g. the notorious bench across the front of stage in The Seagull), relationships between the characters/actors, costumes and setting.
A Sourcebook on Naturalist Theatre Page 1