by Richard Toye
4 Speech of N. M. Samarth, Indian Legislative Assembly Debates, vol. II, no. 31, 9 Feb. 1922, p. 2319, copy in NA, CO 533/287; ‘Indians in Kenya: A Madras Protest’, and ‘Indians in Kenya: The Churchill Controversy’, Madras Weekly Mail, 16 Feb. 1922. See also ‘India’s Political Salvation’, The Times, 16 Feb. 1922. For the resolution on Indian equality – from which, unsurprisingly, the South African delegation dissented – see ‘Conference of Prime Ministers and representatives of the United Kingdom, the Dominions and India, held in June, July and August, 1921’, Cmd. 1474, 1921, p. 8.
5 Speech of 8 July 1920.
6 WSC, memorandum, 25 Oct. 1919, CV IV, part 2, p. 939.
7 Speech of 4 Sept. 1909.
8 WSC to J. C. Robertson, 27 Oct. 1922, CV IV, part 3, p. 2094.
9 Edward David (ed.), Inside Asquith’s Cabinet: From the Diaries of Charles Hobhouse, John Murray, London, 1977, p. 76 (entry for 7 March 1909).
10 WSC, My African Journey [first published by Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1908], CW, vol. I, p. 41.
11 Speech of 4 Sept. 1909.
12 ‘Mr Winston Churchill: Barnardo Homes and the Problem of Boy Labour’, Daily Chronicle, 27 Nov. 1908.
13 Speech of 11 Oct. 1906.
14 WSC to H. H. Asquith, Dec. 1910, quoted in Paul Addison, Churchill on the Home Front, 1900–1955, Pimlico, London, 1993 (first published by Jonathan Cape, 1992), p. 125.
15 Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, My Diaries: Being a Personal Narrative of Events, 1888–1914: Part Two [1900–1914], p. 401 (entry for 21 Oct. 1912).
16 Lord Charles Beresford, ‘The Naval Outlook: Mr Churchill’s Promises and Performances’, Empire Review, 26, 154 (Nov. 1913), pp. 217–24.
17 Nicholas Lambert, ‘Economy or Empire? The Fleet Unit Concept and the Quest for Collective Security in the Pacific, 1909–14’, in Greg Kennedy and Keith Neilson (eds.), Far-Flung Lines: Essays on Imperial Defence, Frank Cass, London, 1997, pp. 55–83.
18 Ibid., pp. 70–1.
19 WSC to Lewis Harcourt, 29 Jan, 1912, Harcourt Papers, Dep. 468, ff. 113–20.
20 Speech of 15 May 1912. Although the Complete Speeches gives ‘guard and control’, it seems more likely that Churchill said ‘patrol’, as reported in ‘An Empire Navy’, The Times, 16 May 1912.
21 ‘Rulers of the Sea’, Evening Post (New Zealand), 20 May 1912; ‘Canada and the Navy’, ‘Imperial Considerations First’, and ‘Mr Churchill and the Dominion Navies’, The Times, 20 May, 1912.
22 Sydney Morning Herald, quoted in ‘Australia and Naval Defence’, The Times, 19 July 1912.
23 ‘Mr Borden’s Position’, The Times, 4 July 1912.
24 ‘Canada and Imperial Defence’, The Times, 6 July 1912.
25 WSC to R. L. Borden, 29 Aug. 1912, Asquith Papers, 24, ff. 164–5.
26 ‘A Half-Century of Tribute’, Globe (Toronto), 6 Dec. 1912.
27 ‘Winston Churchill Again Changes Mind’, Ottawa Free Press, 6 Dec. 1912.
28 ‘Concerning that “Emergency” Discovered by Mr R. L. Borden’, Toronto Daily Star, 11 Jan. 1913.
29 ‘Correspondence between the First Lord of the Admiralty and the Prime Minister of the Dominion of Canada’, Cd. 6689, HMSO, London, 1913.
30 F. B. Carvell, quoted in Toronto Daily Star, 11 March 1913.
31 Henry Emmerson, quoted in ‘Canada and Defence’, Evening Post (NZ), 13 March 1913, citing the Press Association.
32 ‘Imperial Patrol’, Evening Post (NZ), 7 May 1913.
33 Borden to WSC, 23 March 1913, CV II, part 3, p. 1805.
34 ‘The Pacific Danger’, The Times, 14 May 1914.
35 ‘Dominion Navies’, Evening Post (NZ), 30 April 1913.
36 ‘Canada Rejects Naval Aid’, New York Times, 31 May 1913.
37 ‘The Meeting-Place of Continents’, The Times, 14 May 1914.
38 Donald C. Gordon, ‘The Admiralty and Dominion Navies, 1902–1914’, Journal of Modern History, 33 (1961), pp. 407–22, at 422.
39 Graham Freudenberg, Churchill and Australia, Macmillan, Sydney, 2008, pp. 46–50.
40 Leo Amery, My Political Life, vol. I: England before the Storm, 1896–1914, Hutchinson, London, 1953, p. 196.
41 ‘Perils of the Pacific’, Evening Post (NZ), 13 May 1913.
42 Borden to WSC, 31 Dec. 1913, CV II, part 3, p. 1814.
43 C. P. Scott diary, 15 Jan. 1914, C. P. Scott Papers, MS. Add. 50901, f. 91.
44 ‘A Brilliant and Memorable Achievement’, Evening Post (NZ), 3 May 1915.
45 Edward J. Erickson, ‘Strength against Weakness: Ottoman Military Effectiveness at Gallipoli, 1915’, Journal of Military History, 65 (2001), pp. 981–1011, at 1009.
46 WSC, The World Crisis, Part Two: 1915 [first published by Thornton Butterworth, London, 1923], CW, vol. IX, p. 366.
47 WSC to H. H. Asquith, 21 May 1915, CV III, part 2, p. 926.
48 Lord Reading diary, 27 May 1915, Lord Reading Papers, MS Eur. F118/152.
49 Speech of 5 June 1915.
50 Henry W. Nevinson, Last Changes, Last Chances, Nisbet & Co. Ltd, London, 1928, p. 56.
51 Wilfrid Scawen Blunt diary, 14 Aug. 1915, Wilfrid Scawen Blunt Papers, MS 15–1975.
52 Scawen Blunt diary, 29 April 1917, Blunt Papers, MS 17–1975.
53 Despatch of 10 Sept. 1915, quoted in ‘Gallipoli Struggle: Prime Reasons of Failure’, Evening Post (NZ), Oct. 1915.
54 ‘German Gibes at Churchill’, New York Times, 14 Nov. 1915.
55 Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, vol. III: 1914–1916, Heinemann, London, 1971, pp. 563, 565–6.
56 T. H. Buck to Ralph David Blumenfeld, 21 Nov. [1915], Ralph David Blumenfeld Papers, BLU/1/4/BU.1.
57 David Lloyd George to William George, 6 March 1916, William George Papers, 3054.
58 Sunday Times, 3 June 1917, quoted in Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, vol. IV: 1917–1922, Heinemann, London, 1975, p. 23.
59 J. C. Smuts to David Lloyd George, 6 June 1917, CV IV, part 1, p. 69.
60 J. C. Smuts to WSC, 31 July 1917, ibid., p. 120.
61 Cornelia Wimborne to WSC, 18 July 1917, ibid., p. 101.
62 Walter Layton, ‘Adventures in Peace and War’ (unpublished memoirs), pp. 169–169A, Walter Layton Papers, Box 147.
63 WSC, preface to Jeremiah McVeagh, Home Rule in a Nutshell (n.d. but 1911), quoted in Paul Addison, ‘Winston Churchill’s Concept of “The English-Speaking Peoples” ’, in Attila Pók (ed.), The Fabric of Modern Europe: Essays in Honour of Éva Haraszti Taylor, Nottingham, Astra Press, 1999, pp. 103–17, at 105.
64 Speech of 10 Dec. 1917.
65 J. M. McEwen, The Riddell Diaries, 1908–1923, Athlone Press, London and Atlantic Highlands, NJ, 1986, p. 267 (entry for 11 April 1919).
66 Speech of 4 Nov. 1920.
67 WSC to John Morley, 30 Nov. 1905, John Morley Papers, MS Eng. d. 3559, f. 22.
68 Speeches of 8 Feb. and 1 March 1912.
69 ‘Mr Churchill in Belfast’, The Times, 9 Feb. 1912.
70 ‘The Home Rule Fight’, The Times, 12 Aug. 1912.
71 WSC to John Redmond, 31 Aug. 1912, John Redmond Papers.
72 Speech of 14 March 1914.
73 Austen Chamberlain, ‘Memo of Conversation with Winston Churchill. Nov. 27 1913’, Austen Chamberlain Papers, AC 11/1/21.
74 Henry Wilson diary, 30 Aug. 1920, CV IV, part 2, p. 1195.
75 Speech of 16 Oct. 1920.
76 Keith Middlemas (ed.), Thomas Jones, Whitehall Diary, vol. III: Ireland 1918–1925, Oxford University Press, London, 1971, p. 85 (entry for 6 July 1921).
77 ‘Draft Reply Adopted at Gairloch’, 21 Sept. 1921, ibid., p. 116.
78 See, for example, ‘Mr Churchill’s Speech: Sinn Fein’s Answer’, Irish Times, 29 Sept. 1921.
79 Collins’s notes, quoted in Rex Taylor, Michael Collins, Hutchinson, London, 1958, pp. 154–5.
80 Erskine Childers diary, 5 Dec. 1921, copy in Eamon De Valera Papers, P150/1489.
81 James Mackay, Michael Collins: A Life, Mainstream Publishing, Edinbu
rgh, 1996, p. 226.
82 Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, 5th Series, vol. 149, 15 Dec. 1921, cols. 181–2.
83 Dáil Éireann Debates, vol. T, 19 Dec. 1921, 25.
84 Ibid., 3 Jan. 1922, 183.
85 Ibid., 19 Dec. 1921, 33.
86 Quoted in Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, vol. IV, p. 894.
87 Kevin Matthews, Fatal Influence: The Impact of Ireland on British Politics, 1920–1925, University College Dublin Press, Dublin, 2004, p. 78.
88 Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, 5th Series, vol. 149, 15 Dec. 1921, col. 182.
89 See, for example, Julian Amery diary, 28 Feb. 1951, Julian Amery Papers, 4/302.
90 WSC, minute of 18 June 1940, quoted in Martin Gilbert, Winston S. Churchill, vol. VI: Finest Hour, 1939–1941, Heinemann, London, 1983, p. 433.
91 Maurice Hankey diary, 8 Jan. 1921, Maurice Hankey Papers, 1/5.
92 Henry Wilson diary, 23 Jan. 1921, CV IV, part 2, p. 1319.
93 Clementine Churchill to WSC, 7 Feb. 1921, in Mary Soames, (ed.), Speaking for Themselves: The Personal Letters of Winston and Clementine Churchill, Doubleday, London, 1998, p. 226.
94 John Barnes and David Nicholson (eds.), The Leo Amery Diaries, vol. I: 1896–1929, Hutchinson, London, 1980, p. 392 (entry for 21 Nov. 1924).
95 Ronald Hyam, ‘Churchill and the British Empire’, in Robert Blake and Wm. Roger Louis (eds.), Churchill, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1993, pp. 167–85, at 178–9.
96 Lord Curzon to Lady (Grace) Curzon, 14 Feb. 1921, CV IV, part 2, p. 1349.
97 M. R. Lawrence (ed.), The Home Letters of T. E. Lawrence and his Brothers, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1954, p. 232.
98 WSC, Great Contemporaries [first published by Thornton Butterworth, London, 1937], CW, vol. XVI, p. 121. An insightful account of Churchill’s view of Lawrence can be found in Paul K. Alkon, Winston Churchill’s Imagination, Bucknell University Press, Lewisburg, 2006, ch. 1.
99 Gertrude Bell to Frank Balfour, 25 March 1921, Gertrude Bell online archive. For the complaints of others about Churchill, see Michael Makovsky, Churchill’s Promised Land: Zionism and Statecraft, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2007, p. 112.
100 T. E. Lawrence to Robert Graves, quoted in Robert Graves, Lawrence and the Arabs, Jonathan Cape, London, 1927, pp. 396–7.
101 Gertrude Bell to Frank Balfour, 25 March 1921, Gertrude Bell online archive.
102 David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East, Henry Holt & Co., New York, 1989, p. 25. See also, for example, Christopher Catherwood, Winston’s Folly: Imperialism and the Creation of Modern Iraq, Constable, London, 2004.
103 Arthur Herman, Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age, Bantam Books, New York, 2008, p. 272.
104 Lawrence James, The Golden Warrior: The Life and Legend of Lawrence of Arabia, revised edition, Abacus, London, 1995, pp. 384–5; Robert Olson, ‘The Churchill–Cox Correspondence Regarding the Creation of the State of Iraq: Consequences for British Policy Towards the Nationalist Turkish Government, 1921–1923’, International Journal of Turkish Studies, 5 (1991), pp. 121–36.
105 ‘Mesopotamia and Mr Churchill’, The Times, 23 Feb. 1921.
106 Aylmer Haldane, A Soldier’s Saga, William Blackwood & Sons, Edinburgh and London, 1948, pp. 371–2.
107 WSC to Lloyd George, 31 Aug. 1920 (unsent), CV IV, part 2, p. 1199.
108 WSC to Hugh Trenchard, 29 Aug. 1920, ibid., p. 1190. On the use of gas, see also Churchill’s minute of 12 May 1919, CV IV, part 1, p. 649, and his note of 16 Dec. 1921, CV IV, part 3, p. 1695.
109 WSC to Hugh Trenchard, 22 July 1921, CV IV, part 3, p. 1561.
110 WSC, ‘The Situation in Mesopotamia’, 10 Dec. 1920, NA, CAB 14/116.
111 Cabinet minutes, 13 Dec. 1921 (two meetings), CC 69 (21) and CC 70 (21), NA, CAB 23/23; Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, 5th Series, vol. 136, 15 Dec. 1920, col. 548.
112 Fromkin, Peace to End All Peace, p. 508.
113 WSC to Lloyd George, 1 Sept. 1922, CV IV, part 3, p. 1974.
114 WSC to J. C. Robertson, 27 Oct. 1922, ibid., p. 2094.
115 Henry Maxwell Coote diary, 24 March 1921, Henry Maxwell Coote Papers.
116 Coote diary, 29 March 1921, ibid.
117 WSC, memorandum, 25 Oct. 1919, CV IV, part 2, p. 938.
118 ‘Zionism versus Bolshevism’, Illustrated Sunday Herald, 8 Feb. 1920, in The Collected Essays of Sir Winston Churchill, ed. Michael Wolff, 4 vols., Library of Imperial History, London, 1976, vol. IV, pp. 26–30, at 27, 29. In an editorial of 13 February 1920 the Jewish Chronicle criticized Churchill strongly for these views: Michael J. Cohen, Churchill and the Jews, 2nd edition, Frank Cass, London, 2003, p. 56. See also Norman Rose, ‘Churchill and Zionism’, in Robert Blake and Wm. Roger Louis (eds.), Churchill, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1993, pp. 147–66, at 150–1, and Makovsky, Churchill’s Promised Land, pp. 84–9.
119 Tom Segev, One Palestine, Complete: Jews and Arabs under the British Mandate, Little, Brown, London, 2000, pp. 38, 158.
120 Memorandum by the Palestinian Arab Congress, 14 March 1921, and the Egyptian Gazette, 30 March 1921, CV IV, part 2, pp. 1386–8, 1419–21.
121 A record of the meeting, which took place on 22 July 1921, can be found in CV IV, part 3, pp. 1558–61.
122 ‘Palestine: Correspondence with the Palestine Arab Delegation and the Zionist Organisation’, Cmd. 1700, June 1922, pp. 18–19. Emphasis in original.
123 Rose, ‘Churchill and Zionism’, p. 157.
124 Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, 5th Series, vol. 156, 4 July 1922, col. 355.
125 Malcolm MacDonald, Titans & Others, Collins, London, 1972, pp. 91–2.
126 See Michael Cohen’s valuable article ‘The Churchill–Gilbert Symbiosis: Myth and Reality’, Modern Judaism, 28 (2008), pp. 204–28, which demolishes the case made in Martin Gilbert, Churchill and the Jews, Simon & Schuster, London, 2007.
127 WSC, memorandum, 25 Oct. 1919, CV IV, part 2, p. 938.
128 Ibid., p. 1260, n. 1.
129 WSC, memorandum, 25 Oct. 1919, ibid., p. 939.
130 ‘Empire Family Council’, The Times, 14 Feb. 1921.
131 ‘Egyptian Independence Claim’, The Times, 18 Feb. 1921. See also Lord Curzon to WSC, 13 June 1921, CV IV, part 3, p. 1503.
132 Curzon to Grace Curzon, 24 Oct. 1921, quoted in David Gilmour, Curzon, John Murray, London, 1994, p. 525.
133 Curzon to Lord Hardinge, 21 Oct. 1921, quoted ibid., p. 526.
134 ‘Report of the Committee appointed by the Government of India to investigate the disturbances in the Punjab, etc.’, Cmd. 681, 1920, p. 29.
135 M. K. Gandhi, An Autobiography, or, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, Penguin, London, 1982 (first published 1927–9), p. 422.
136 H. H. Asquith to Venetia Stanley, 12 May 1915, in Michael and Eleanor Brock (eds.), H. H. Asquith: Letters to Venetia Stanley, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1982, p. 593. Emphasis in original.
137 John Darwin, ‘A Third British Empire? The Dominion Idea in Imperial Politics’, in Judith M. Brown and Wm. Roger Louis (eds.), The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Twentieth Century, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1999, pp. 64–87, at 78–9.
138 Alfred Draper, The Amritsar Massacre: Twilight of the Raj, Buchan & Enright, London, 1985, pp. 209–12.
139 ‘General Dyer’s “Error” ’, The Times, 8 July 1920.
140 Parliamentary Debates, House of Commons, 5th Series, vol. 131, 8 July 1920, cols. 1707–8.
141 William Sutherland to David Lloyd George, 9 July 1920, CV IV, part 2, pp. 1140–1.
142 Austen Chamberlain to Ida Chamberlain, 11 July 1920, in Robert Self (ed.), The Austen Chamberlain Diary Letters: The Correspondence of Sir Austen Chamberlain with his Sisters Hilda and Ida, 1916–1937, Cambridge University Press for the Royal Historical Society, London, 1995, p. 138.
143 Parliamentary Debates, House of Common
s, 5th Series, vol. 131, 8 July 1920, cols. 1719–33. For Churchill’s struggles with the Army Council, see Nigel Collett, The Butcher of Amritsar: General Reginald Dyer, Hambledon, London, 2005, ch. 21.
144 The emphasis on the massacre’s singularity was echoed by others. See Derek Sayer, ‘British Reaction to the Amritsar Massacre, 1919–1920’, Past and Present, 131 (1991), pp. 130–64.