99. William McFee, The Law of the Sea (Philadelphia, Lippincott, 1951), 50, 54, 59, 72.
100. Barnaby Slush, The Navy Royal: Or a Sea-Cook Turn’d Projector (London, 1709), viii.
Chapter Five
1. Henry Laurens to J.B., Esq., Oct. 26, 1765; Laurens to John Lewis Gervais, Jan. 29, 1766; Laurens to James Grant, Jan. 31, 1766; all in The Papers of Henry Laurens, ed. George C. Rogers Jr., David R. Chesnutt, and Peggy J. Clark (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1968), vol. 5 (1765–68), 38–40, 53–54, 60; Bull quoted in Pauline Maier, “The Charleston Mob and the Evolution of Popular Politics in Revolutionary South Carolina, 1765–1784,” Perspectives in American History 4 (1970): 176.
2. Peter Linebaugh and Marcus Rediker, The Many-Headed Hydra: Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic (Boston: Beacon Press, 2000), chaps. 5–6.
3. Jesse Lemisch, “Jack Tar in the Streets: Merchant Seamen in the Politics of Revolutionary America,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 25 (1968): 371–407; Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987), chap. 5.
4. Dora Mae Clark, “The Impressment of Seamen in the American Colonies,” Essays in Colonial History Presented to Charles McLean Andrews by his Students (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1931), 217; Richard Pares, “The Manning of the Navy in the West Indies, 1702–1763,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 20 (1937): 48–49; Daniel Baugh, British Naval Administration in the Age of Walpole (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965), 162.
5. Peter Warren to the Duke of Newcastle, June 18, 1745, in The Royal Navy and North America: The Warren Papers, 1736–1752, ed. Julian Gwyn (London: Navy Records Society, 1973), 126.
6. Charles Knowles to ?, Oct. 15, 1744, Admiralty Papers (hereafter ADM) 1/2007, f. 135, National Archives of the UK; “The Memorial of Captain Charles Knowles” (1743), ADM 1/2006; Peter Warren to Thomas Corbett, June 2, 1746, in Warren Papers, 262.
7. Thomas Hutchinson, The History of the Colony and Province of Massachusetts-Bay, ed. Lawrence Shaw Mayo (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936, republished, 1970), 2:330–31; William Shirley to Lords of Trade, Dec. 1, 1747; Shirley to Duke of Newcastle, Dec. 31, 1747; Shirley to Josiah Willard, Nov. 19, 1747; all in Charles Henry Lincoln, ed., Correspondence of William Shirley, Governor of Massachusetts and Military Commander of America, 1731–1760 (New York: Macmillan, 1912), 1:415, 416, 417, 418, 421, 422; John Lax and William Pencak, “The Knowles Riot and the Crisis of the 1740s in Massachusetts,” Perspectives in American History 19 (1976): 182, 186 (Knowles quoted, my emphasis), 205, 214; Douglass Adair and John A. Schutz, eds., Peter Oliver’s Origin and Progress of the American Rebellion: A Tory View (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1961), 41, 39; William Roughead, ed., Trial of Captain Porteous (Toronto: Canada Law Book Co., 1909), 103.
8. Lax and Pencak, “Knowles Riot,” 199; John C. Miller, Sam Adams: Pioneer in Propaganda (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1936), 15–16.
9. Independent Advertiser, Jan. 4, 1748; Shirley to Lords of Trade, Correspondence of William Shirley, 1:412; Resolution of the Boston Town Meeting, Nov. 20, 1747, and Resolution of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, Nov. 19, 1747, both in the Boston weekly Post-Boy, Dec. 21, 1747; Hutchinson, History of the Colony, 2:332; William Douglass, A Summary, Historical and Political, of the First Planting, Progressive Improvements, and Present State of the British Settlements in North America (Boston, 1749), 254–55; Independent Advertiser, Aug. 28, 1749; Amicus Patriae, An Address to the Inhabitants of the Province of Massachusetts-Bay in New-England; More Especially, To the Inhabitants of New England; Occasioned by the late Illegal and Unwarrantable Attack upon their Liberties (Boston, 1747), 4.
10. Independent Advertiser, Feb. 8, 1748; Mar. 6, 1749; Apr. 18, 1748; Jan. 25, 1748; Mar. 14, 1748; Jan. 11, 1748.
11. Jonathan Mayhew, A Discourse on Unlimited Submission (Boston, 1750), reprinted in Bernard Bailyn, ed., Pamphlets of the American Revolution: 1750–1776, vol. 1, 1750–1765 (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1965), 213–47; Charles W. Akers, Called Unto Liberty: A Life of Jonathan Mayhew, 1720–1766 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964), 53, 67, 84.
12. Lord Colvill to Philip Stephens, Sept. 9, 1764, and Nov. 30, 1764, ADM 1/482, ff. 386, 417–19; Neil R. Stout, “Manning the Royal Navy in North America, 1763–1775,” American Neptune 23 (1963): 175.
13. Rear Admiral Colvill to Mr. Stephens, July 26, 1764, in Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in New England, ed. John Russell Bartlett (Providence: Knowles, Anthony & Co., 1861), 6: 428–29; Thomas Hill, “Remarks on board His Maj[esty]’s Schooner St. John in Newport Harbour Rhode Island,” ADM 1/482, f. 372; Thomas Langhorne to Lord Colvill, Aug. 11, 1764, ADM 1/482, f. 377. See also Newport Mercury, July 23, 1764; Colvill to Stephens, Jan. 12, 1765, ADM 1/482, f. 432.
14. Governor Samuel Ward to Captain Charles Antrobus, July 12, 1765, in Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in New England, ed. John Russell Bartlett (Providence: Knowles, Anthony & Co., 1861), 6:447; Lords of Admiralty to Mr. Secretary Conway, Mar. 20, 1766, in Calendar of Home Office Papers of the Reign of George III, 1766–1768, ed. Joseph Redington (London, 1879), 2:26; Hutchinson, History of the Colony, 3:138; Donna J. Spindel, “Law and Disorder: The North Carolina Stamp Act Crisis,” North Carolina Historical Review 57 (1980): 10–11; Pennsylvania Journal, Dec. 26, 1765; Adair and Schutz, Peter Oliver’s Origin, 69; Lemisch, “Jack Tar in the Streets,” 392; David S. Lovejoy, Rhode Island Politics and the American Revolution, 1760–1776 (Providence: Brown University Press, 1958), 157; Paul A. Gilje, The Road to Mobocracy: Popular Disorder in New York City, 1763–1834 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), 63.
15. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v., “strike”; C. R. Dobson, Masters and Journeymen: A Prehistory of Industrial Relations, 1717–1800 (London: Croom Helm, 1980), 154–70; Oliver M. Dickerson, The Navigation Acts and the American Revolution (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951), 218–19.
16. J. Cunningham, An Essay on Trade and Commerce (London, 1770), 52, 58. On Wilkes, see Pauline Maier, From Resistance to Revolution: Colonial Radicals and the Development of American Opposition to Britain, 1765–1776 (New York: Vintage Books, 1972), 162–69; George Rudé, Wilkes and Liberty: A Social Study of 1763–1774 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962).
17. Nauticus, The Rights of the Sailors Vindicated, In Answer to a Letter of Junius, on the 5th of October, wherein he asserts The Necessity and Legality of pressing men into the Service of the Navy (London, 1772); Nicholas Rogers, “Liberty Road: Opposition to Impressment in Britain during the War of American Independence,” in Jack Tar in History: Essays in the History of Maritime Life and Labour, ed. Colin Howell and Richard Twomey (Fredericton, New Brunswick: Acadiensis Press, 1991), 53–75.
18. Prince Hoare, Memoirs of Granville Sharp (1820); Edward Lascelles, Granville Sharp and the Freedom of Slaves in England (London: Oxford University Press, 1928); John Fielding, Penal Laws (London, 1768).
19. R. Barrie Rose, “A Liverpool Sailors’ Strike in the Eighteenth Century,” Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society 68 (1958): 85–92; “Extract of a Letter from Liverpool, Sept. 1, 1775,” Morning Chronicle and London Advertiser, Sept. 5, 1775, republished in Richard Brooke, Liverpool as it was during the Last Quarter of the Eighteenth century, 1775 to 1800 (Liverpool, 1853), 332.
20. A Letter To the Right Honourable The Earl of T-----e: or, the Case of J--- W----s, Esquire (London, 1768), 22, 39; Maier, From Resistance to Revolution, 161; Adair and Schutz, Peter Oliver’s Origin, 56; The Trial at Large of James Hill . . ., Commonly known by the Name of John the Painter . . . 2nd edition (London, 1777).
21. Edward Long, The History of Jamaica, or General Survey of the Antient and Modern
State of that Island; Reflections on its Situation, Settlements, Inhabitants, Climate, Products, Commerce, Laws, and Government (London, 1774), 2:462; Mervyn Alleyne, Roots of Jamaican Culture (London, 1988), chap. 4.
22. Douglas Hall, ed., In Miserable Slavery: Thomas Thistlewood in Jamaica, 1750–1786 (London: Macmillan, 1989), 106; Michael Craton, Testing the Chains: Resistance to Slavery in the British West Indies (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1982), 125–39.
23. Long, History of Jamaica, 2:460; Hall, In Miserable Slavery, 98.
24. J. Philmore, Two Dialogues on the Man-Trade (London, 1760), 9, 7, 8, 10, 14; David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770–1823 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1975); Davis, “New Sidelights on Early Antislavery Radicalism,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 28 (1971): 585–94.
25. Philmore, Two Dialogues, 45, 51, 54; Anthony Benezet, A Short Account of that Part of Africa Inhabited by the Negroes . . . (Philadelphia, 1762); Benezet, Some Historical Account of Guinea (Philadelphia, 1771); Davis, Problem of Slavery, 332.
26. James Otis, The Rights of the British Colonies Asserted and Proved (Boston, 1764), republished in Bailyn, Pamphlets of the American Revolution, 419–82; Boston News-Letter, June 19, July 10, Sept. 18, and Oct. 30, 1760; Feb. 2, 1761.
27. Charles Francis Adams, ed., The Works of John Adams (Boston: Little, Brown, 1856), 10:247, 272, 314–16; Adair and Schutz, Peter Oliver’s Origin, 35.
28. Craton, Testing the Chains, 138, 139, 140; O. Nigel Bolland, The Formation of a Colonial Society: Belize, from Conquest to Crown Colony (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977), 73.
29. See Peter Wood, “‘Taking Care of Business’ in Revolutionary South Carolina: Republicanism and the Slave Society,” in The Southern Experience in the American Revolution, ed. Jeffrey J. Crow and Larry E. Tise (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978), 276, and “‘The Dream Deferred’: Black Freedom Struggles on the Eve of White Independence,” in In Resistance: Studies in African, Caribbean, and Afro-American History, ed. Gary Y. Okihiro (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 1986), 170, 172–73, 174–75; Jeffrey J. Crow, “Slave Rebelliousness and Social Conflict in North Carolina, 1775 to 1802,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 37 (1980): 85–86; Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: Columbia University Press, 1943), 87, 200–202; Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961), 14.
30. Sylvia R. Frey, Water from the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), 38, 61–62, 202.
31. Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community, 1720–1840 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 72; Quarles, Negro in the American Revolution, 84; Lemisch, “Jack Tar in the Streets,” 375; Shane White, “‘We Dwell in Safety and Pursue Our Honest Callings’: Free Blacks in New York City, 1783–1810,” Journal of American History 75 (1988): 453–54; Ira Dye, “Early American Merchant Seafarers,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 120 (1976): 358; Philip D. Morgan, “Black Life in Eighteenth-Century Charleston,” Perspectives in American History, New ser., 1 (1984): 200; Wood, “Taking Care of Business,” 276; Crow, “Slave Rebelliousness,” 85; Henry Laurens to John Laurens, June 18, 1775, and June 23,1775, in Rogers, Chesnutt, and Clark, Papers of Henry Laurens, 10:184, 191.
32. F. Nwabueze Okoye, “Chattel Slavery as the Nightmare of the American Revolutionaries,” William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser., 37 (1980): 12; Anthony Benezet to Granville Sharp, Mar. 29, 1773, in Am I Not a Man and a Brother: The Antislavery Crusade of Revolutionary America, 1688–1788, ed. Roger Bruns (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1977), 263.
33. John M. Bumsted and Charles E. Clark, “New England’s Tom Paine: John Allen and the Spirit of Liberty,” William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser., 21 (1964): 570; Bruns, Am I Not a Man, 257–62; Thomas Paine, “African Slavery in America” (1775), in The Collected Writings of Thomas Paine, ed. Philip S. Foner (New York: Citadel Press, 1945), 17, 19; Wood, “Dream Deferred,” 168, 181.
34. Sharon Salinger, “To Serve Well and Faithfully”: Indentured Servitude in Pennsylvania, 1682–1800 (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 101–2; Morgan, “Black Life,” 206–7, 219.
35. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, “Political Mobs and the American Revolution, 1765–1776,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 99 (1955): 244–50; Lemisch, “Jack Tar in the Streets”; Pauline Maier, “Popular Uprisings and Civil Authority in Eighteenth-Century America,” William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser., 27 (1970): 3–35; Dirk Hoerder, Crowd Action in Revolutionary Massachusetts, 1765–1780 (New York: Academic Press, 1977).
36. Hutchinson, History of the Colony, 2:332; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in Revolt: Urban Life in America, 1743–1776 (New York: Capricorn Books, 1955), 309; Jeremiah Morgan to Francis Fauquier, Sept. 11, 1767, ADM 1/2116; Miller, Sam Adams, 142; Lemisch, “Jack Tar in the Streets,” 386, 391; Colden to General Gage, July 8, 1765, Colden Letter-Books, 1760–1765 in Collections of the New York Historical Society (1877), 23; Elaine Forman Crane, A Dependent People: Newport, Rhode Island in the Revolutionary Era (New York: Fordham University Press, 1985), 113.
37. Oliver Morton Dickerson, ed., Boston Under Military Rule, 1768–1769, as revealed in A Journal of the Times (Boston: Chapman and Grimes, Mount Vernon Press, 1936), entry for May 4, 1769, 94, 95, 110; Allen, Oration on the Beauties of Liberty, in Bruns, Am I Not a Man, 258, 259 (emphasis in original).
38. Gary B. Nash, The Urban Crucible: Social Change, Political Consciousness, and the Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 366; Schlesinger, “Political Mobs,” 244; Edmund S. Morgan and Helen M. Morgan, The Stamp Act Crisis: Prologue to Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1953), 162, 208, 231–39; Adair and Schutz, Peter Oliver’s Origin, 51.
39. Hutchinson quoted in Anthony Pagden, Spanish Imperialism and the Political Imagination: Studies in European and Spanish-American Social and Political Theory, 1513–1830 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990), 66; Lovejoy, Rhode Island Politics, 105; Redington, Calendar of Home Office Papers, 1:610; Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 196; Lloyd I. Rudolph, “The Eighteenth Century Mob in America and Europe,” American Quarterly 11 (1959): 452; Spindel, “Law and Disorder,” 8; Pennsylvania Journal, Nov. 21, 1765, Dec. 26, 1765; Alfred F. Young, “English Plebeian Culture and Eighteenth-Century American Radicalism,” in The Origins of Anglo-American Radicalism, ed. Margaret Jacob and James Jacob (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1984), 193–94; Gage quoted in Schlesinger, “Political Mobs,” 246.
40. Lemisch, “Jack Tar in the Streets,” 398; Lovejoy, Rhode Island Politics, 156, 159, 164.
41. Lee R. Boyer, “Lobster Backs, Liberty Boys, and Laborers in the Streets: New York’s Golden Hill and Nassau Street Riots,” New York Historical Society Quarterly 57 (1973): 289–308; Hiller B. Zobel, The Boston Massacre (New York: Norton, 1970); L. Kinvin Wroth and Hiller B. Zobel, eds., Legal Papers of John Adams (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1965), 3:266; Hoerder, Crowd Action, chap. 13.
42. Timothy quoted in Maier, “Charleston Mob,” 181; Edward Countryman, A People in Revolution: The American Revolution and Political Society in New York, 1760–1790 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), 37, 45; Gage to Conway, Nov. 4, 1765, in The Correspondence of General Thomas Gage, with the Secretaries of State, 1763–1775, ed. Edwin Carter (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1931), 1:71; Barrington quoted in Tony Hayter, The Army and the Crowd in Mid-Georgian London (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1978), 130; Charles G. Steffen, The Mechanics of Baltimore: Workers and Politics in the Age of Revolution, 1763–1812 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1984), 73.
43. Clarence S. Brigham, Paul Revere’s Engravings (Worcester, MA: American Antiquarian Society, 1954), 41–57; Quarles, Negro in the American Re
volution, 125.
44. Steffen, Mechanics of Baltimore, 73; Gouverneur Morris to Mr. Penn, May 20, 1774, in American Archives, 4th ser., ed. Peter Force (Washington, DC, 1837), 1:343; Maier, “Charleston Mob,” 185; Leonard W. Labaree, ed., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1961), vol. 3 (1745–1750), 106; Adair and Schutz, Peter Oliver’s Origin, xv, 35, 51–55, 88, 107; Joseph Chalmers, Plain Truth (Philadelphia, 1776), 71.
45. Richard B. Morris, Government and Labor in Early America (New York: Harper and Row, 1946), 189; Lovejoy, Rhode Island Politics, 159; Leonard quoted in Esmond S. Wright, Fabric of Freedom, 1763–1800, rev. ed. (New York: Hill and Wang, 1978), 77–78.
46. Rush quoted in Eric Foner, Tom Paine and Revolutionary America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1976), 138; David S. Lovejoy, Religious Enthusiasm in the New World: Heresy to Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1985), 223–24; Davis, Problem of Slavery, 333.
47. Don M. Wolfe, Leveller Manifestoes of the Puritan Revolution (New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1944), 227, 300, 125, 287, 320, 405. See also Robin Blackburn, The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776–1848 (London: Verso, 1988), chap. 1; Pauline Maier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (New York: Knopf, 1997), 51 ff; Garry Wills, Inventing America: Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1978).
48. Maier, From Resistance to Revolution, 76, 97–100; Gilje, Road to Mobocracy, 48; Wroth and Zobel, Legal Papers of John Adams, 3:269; Works of John Adams, 2:322.
49. Carl Becker, The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1922), 214.
50. Alyce Barry, “Thomas Paine, Privateersman,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 101 (1977): 459–61.
51. Maier, “Charleston Mob,” 181, 186, 188, and “Popular Uprising and Civil Authority,” 33–35; Hoerder, Crowd Action, 378–88; Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 1969), 319–28.
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