28. Philip Weeks, Farewell, My Nation: The American Indian and the United States in the Nineteenth Century (Wheeling, IL: Harland Davidson, 2001), 171; Reyhner and Eder, American Indian Education, 71–72.; Karl Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn: An Apache Massacre and the Violence of History (New York: Penguin Books, 2008), 127.
29. William T. Sherman, “We Do Our Duty According to Our Means,” in Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, V, 2–4; Sherman, “The Indian Question,” Ibid., 109–113; Weeks, Farewell, My Nation, 125–126; Fellman, Citizen Sherman, 260–271.
30. James Donovan, A Terrible Glory: Custer and the Little Big Horn—The Last Great Battle of the American West (New York: Back Bay Books, 2008) 17–18; Peka Håmålåinen, The Comanche Empire (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008), 328; Weeks, Farewell, My Nation, 159.
31. West, Contested Plains, 174, 201.
32. David F. Halaas and Andrew E. Masich, Halfbreed: The Remarkable True Story of George Bent Caught between the Worlds of the Indian and the White Man (New York: Da Capo Press, 2004), 127, 138.
33. West, Contested Plains, 299–319.
34. Halaas and Masich, Halfbreed, 113–153; See also Jerome A. Greene and Douglas D. Scott, Finding Sand Creek: History, Archeology, and the 1864 Massacre Site (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004); http://www.kclonewolf.com/History/SandCreek/sc-documents/sc-01hearing.html.
35. West, Contested Plains, 299–319; Halaas and Masich, Halfbreed, 113–153; Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, III, xxii; The Secretary of War’s report on the Sand Creek massacre can be accessed online at: http://www.kclonewolf.com/History/SandCreek/sc-documents/sc-01hearing.html.
36. Håmålåinen, Comanche Empire, 324.
37. Blackhawk, Violence over the Land, 215; Henry E. Stamm, IV, People of the Wind River: The Eastern Shoshones, 1825–1900 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999), 236; On the buffalo see Andrew C. Isenberg, The Destruction of the Bison: An Environmental History, 1750–1920 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
38. Brig. Gen. Edward S. Godfrey, “Some Reminiscences, Including the Washita Battle,” November 27, 1868, Box 3, Godfrey Papers, United States Army Military History Institute, Carlisle Barracks, Pa. (hereinafter cited as Carlisle Barracks); Jerome A. Greene, Washita: The U.S. Army and the Southern Cheyenne, 1867–1869 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004); Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, III, 339–403.
39. Benjamin Madley, “Tactics of Nineteenth Century Colonial Massacre: Tasmania, California and Beyond,” in Philip G. Dwyer and Lyndall Ryan, eds., Theatres of Violence: Massacre, Mass Killing and Atrocity Throughout History (New York: Berghan Books, 2012), 110–125; see also James Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep: A History of Native America (New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1998), 228.
40. Stuart Banner, Possessing the Pacific: Land, Settlers, and Indigenous People from Australia to Alaska (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 184–188.
41. Albert L. Hurtado, Indian Survival on the California Frontier (New Haven, CT.: Yale University Press, 1988); Wilson, The Earth Shall Weep, 244.
42. Hurtado, Indian Survival on the California Frontier, 213; Steven W. Hackel, Children of Coyote, Missionaries of Saint Francis: Indian-Spanish Relations in Colonial California, 1769–1850 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2005), 8, 39; Clifford E. Trafzer and Joel R. Hyer, eds., “Exterminate Them!”: Written Accounts of Murder, Rape, and Slavery of Native Americans During the California Gold Rush, 1848–1868 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1999), 9.
43. Trafzer and Hyer, eds., “Exterminate Them!”, 12.
44. George Harwood Phillips, Indians and Intruders in Central California, 1769–1849 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1993); Trafzer and Hyer, eds., “Exterminate Them!”, 13.
45. Hurtado, Indian Survival on the California Frontier, 213; Trafzer and Hyer, eds., “Exterminate Them!”, 30; Benjamin Madley, “The Genocide of California’s Yana Indians,” in Samuel Totten and William S. Parsons, eds., Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts (New York: Routledge, 2013), 174; Banner, Possessing the Pacific, 165.
46. Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987), 109–112; Madley, “Genocide of California’s Yana Indians,” 17–53.
47. Wilson, Earth Shall Weep, 229–230; Trafzer and Hyer, eds., “Exterminate Them!”, 14, 21.
48. Benjamin Madley, “When ‘The World Was Turned Upside Down’: California and Oregon’s Tolowa Indian Genocide, 1851–1856,” in Adams Jones, ed., New Directions in Genocide Research (New York: Routledge, 2012), 171–196.
49. Trafzer and Hyer, eds., “Exterminate Them!”, 27; James J. Rawls, Indians of California: The Changing Image (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1984), 152–164; Ben Kiernan, Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 352–354.
50. Phillips, Indians and Intruders, 161; on Garra, see George Harwood Phillips, Chiefs and Challengers: Indian Resistance and Cooperation in Southern California (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1975).
51. Trafzer and Hyer, eds., “Exterminate Them!” contains reprints of accounts over several years from the Daily Alta California and other newspapers; Kiernan, Blood and Soil, 350–352.
52. Wilson, Earth Shall Weep, 238; Kiernan, Blood and Soil, 352.
53. On this point, see Smith, View from Officers’ Row, 184.
54. Azor H. Nickerson, “Major General George Crook and the Indians: A Sketch,” Crook-Kennon Papers, Box 1, Carlisle Barracks; John G. Bourke, “General Crook in Indian Country,” in Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, V, 149–202.
55. Jean Pfaelzer, Driven Out: The Forgotten War Against Chinese Americans (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2007), xxv–xxvii; David T. Courtwright, Violent Land: Single Men and Social Disorder from the Frontier to the Inner City (Harvard University Press, 1996), 158.
56. Blackhawk, Violence over the Land, 20, 148.
57. Julianna Barr, “From Captives to Slaves: Commodifying Indian Women in the Borderlands,” Journal of American History 92 (June 2005), 21–46; see also Michael Lansing, “Plains Indian Women and Native and Interracial Marriage in the Upper Missouri Trade, 1804–1868,” Western Historical Quarterly 31 (Winter 2000), 413–433.
58. Blackhawk, Violence over the Land, 162, 172.
59. Ibid., 249, 263–267.
60. Jane Lahti, “Colonized Labor: Apaches and Pawnees as Army Workers,” Western Historical Quarterly 39 (Autumn 2008), 283–302.
61. Blackhawk, Violence over the Land, 240.
62. Virginia McConnell Simmons, The Ute Indians of Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico (Boulder; CO: University Press of Colorado, 2000), 90.
63. Blackhawk, Violence over the Land, 231–244.
64. Simmons, Ute Indians of Utah, 78.
65. Blackhawk, Violence over the Land, 225.
66. Simmons, Ute Indians of Utah, 120–125; “Ute War,” in Peter Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to the Indian Wars, III Conquering the Southern Plains (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2003), 598–641.
67. Brooks, Captives and Cousins, 363.
68. Peter Iverson, Diné: A History of the Navahos (Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 2002), 36–51; Brooks, Captives and Cousins, 331–334.
69. Frederick W. Rathjen, The Texas Panhandle Frontier (Lubbock, TX: Texas Tech University Press, 1998), 144.
70. Hamelein, 303–313; Anderson, 302–317.
71. Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses, III, xxxix; Håmålåinen, Comanche Empire, 297.
72. Rathjen, Texas Panhandle Frontier, 173–174; Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, III, 448–565.
73. Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn, 60–61.
74. Frederik G. Hughes, “The Military and Cochise,” in Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, I, 132–137; Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn, 60�
�61.
75. Edward Palmer, “A Great Slaughter of Apaches,” in Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, I, 5–6; Charles B. Genung, “Indians and Indigo,” Ibid., 84; Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn, 114, 122.
76. James Deine, “An Incident of the Hualapais War,” in Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, I, 5–6; William S. Oury, “Historical Truth: The So-Called ‘Camp Grant Massacre’ of 1871,” Ibid., 57–58; Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn, 122; see also Peter Aleshire, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Apache Wars (New York: Facts on File, 1998).
77. Oury, “Historical Truth,” 61; Brig, Gen. T. H. Slavens, “San Carlos, Arizona in the Eighties: The Land of the Apache,” Box 11, OIW, Carlisle Barracks; Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn, 139; Nicole M. Guidotti-Hernandez, Unspeakable Violence: Remapping U.S. and Mexican National Imaginaries (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2011), 81–132.
78. Guidotti-Hernandez, Unspeakable Violence, 132.
79. Jacoby, Shadows at Dawn, 92, 222–225.
80. Ibid., 139, 229; Aleshire, Reaping the Whirlwind, 100–143.
81. Charles P. Elliott, “Campaign against Chiricahua Apache Indians, Geronimo, and Others, 1885, 1886,” Box 2, OIW, Carlisle Barracks; see also Section V, “Chasing Geronimo, 1885–1886,” in Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, I, 425–589.
82. “Apache Campaign, 1886,” Box 2, Nelson A. Miles Papers; “Extracts from the Personal Memoirs of Brigadier General James Parker, U.S. Army,” Box 11, Order of the Indian Wars; Secretary of War R.C. Drum to Miles, August 25, 1886, Box 2, Miles Papers, all at Carlisle Barracks; Elliott, “Campaign against Apache Indians, Geronimo”; In 2009 Geronimo’s great-grandson sued Skull and Bones over the alleged desecration. The grave at Fort Sill is open to the public.
83. Gray H. Whaley, Oregon and the Collapse of Illahee: U.S. Empire and the Transformation of an Indigenous World, 1792–1859 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 161.
84. Hampton Sides, Blood and Thunder: An Epic of the American West (New York: Doubleday, 2006): 85–88.
85. Cameron Addis, “The Whitman massacre: Religion and Manifest Destiny on the Columbia Plateau, 1809–1858,” Journal of the Early Republic 25 (Summer 2005), 221–258; Elliott West, The Last Indian War: The Nez Perce Story (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009).
86. Banner, Possessing the Pacific, 238; Whaley, Oregon and the Collapse of Illahee, 216–225.
87. Whaley, Oregon and the Collapse of Illahee, 216–225.
88. Ibid., 203, 231.
89. Banner, Possessing the Pacific, 253; Robert R. McCoy, Chief Joseph, Yellow Wolf, and the Creation of Nez Perce History in the Pacific Northwest (New York: Routledge, 2004), 84; Whaley, Oregon and the Collapse of Illahee, 218.
90. West, The Last Indian War, 23.
91. Ibid., 20–136.
92. “Nez Perce Campaign: Official Reports and Letters,” Box 2, Miles Papers; Charles N. Loynes, “From Fort Fizzle to the Big Hole,” 432–440; John B. Caitlyn, “The Battle of Big Hole,” 441–446; Duncan McDonald, “The Nez Perce War of 1877—The Inside Story from Indian Sources”; Henry Buck, “The Story of the Nez Perce Campaign During the Summer of 1877,” 496–538, 451–493; Chuslum Moxmox (Yellow Bull), “Yellow Bull’s Story,” 494–495, all in Peter Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to the Indian Wars, 1865–1890, II, The Wars for the Pacific Northwest (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2002); West, The Last Indian War, 186–266.
93. West, The Last Indian War, 291; McCoy, Chief Joseph, Yellow Wolf, and Creation of Nez Perce History, 128; Miles to President Hayes, January 19, 1881, Box 2, Miles Papers; “Chief Joseph: An Indian’s View of Indian Affairs (1879),” in Colin Calloway, ed., First Peoples: A Documentary Survey of American Indian Peoples (New York: Bedford St. Martin’s, 2008), 349–355.
94. West, Last Indian War, 301–321.
95. James Jackson, “The Modoc War: Its Origin, Incidents, and Peculiarities,” 98–109; George W. Kingsbury, “The Twelfth U.S. Infantry in the Lava Beds,” 274–275, both in Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, II; Charles B. Hardin, 1st U.S. Cavalry, “The Modoc War, 1872–1873”, January 12, 1926, Box 10, OIW, Carlisle Barracks.
96. J. O. Skinner, “Correspondence with the Army War College Concerning the Modoc War and the Murder of General Canby,” undated, Box 11, Carlisle Barracks; “Veritas,” “The Capture of Captain Jack,” in Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, II, 284–286; Bruce Vandervort, Indian Wars of Mexico, Canada, and the United States, 1812–1900 (New York: Routledge, 2006), 189; Ian Hernon, Massacre and Retribution: Forgotten Wars of the Nineteenth Century (London: Sutton Publishing, 1998), 131–154.
97. Whaley, Oregon and the Collapse of Illahee, 220, 238.
98. Oliver O. Howard, “The Bannock War,” 604–664; William C. Brown and Charles B. Hardin, “The Sheepeater Campaign,” 676–706, in Cozzens, ed., Eyewitnesses to Indian Wars, II;Wooster, Military and U.S. Indian Policy, 174–178.
99. Ted Binnema and William A. Dobak, “ ‘Like the Greedy Wolf’: The Blackfeet, the St. Louis Fur Trade, and War Fever, 1807–1831,” Journal of the Early Republic 29 (Fall 2009), 413.
100. Theodore Binnema, “Allegiances and Interests: Niitsitapi (Blackfoot) Trade, Diplomacy, and Warfare, 1801–1836,” Western Historical Quarterly 37 (Autumn 2006), 327–349; John C. Ewers, The Blackfeet: Raiders on the Northwestern Plains (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1958), 251–252; Blanca Tovias, “A Blueprint for Massacre: The United States Army and the 1870 Blackfeet Massacre,” in Dwyer and Ryan, eds., Theatres of Violence.
101. Jerry Kennan, The Great Sioux Uprising: Rebellion on the Plains August-September 1862 (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2003); Sylvia D. Hoffert, “Gender and Vigilantism on the Minnesota Frontier: Jane Gregy Suisshelm and the U.S.-Dakota Conflict of 1862,” Western Historical Quarterly 29 (Autumn, 1998), 342–362.
102. Hoxie, Parading Through History, 88.
103. Richard White, “The Winning of the West: The Expansion of the Western Sioux in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,” in Peter C. Mancall and James H. Merrell, eds., American Encounters: Natives and Newcomers from European Contact to Indian removal, 1500–1850 (New York: Routledge, 2000), 542–561.
104. Jeffrey Ostler, The Lakotas and the Black Hills: The Struggle for Sacred Ground (New York: Viking, 2010), 42–45.
105. Jeffrey Ostler, The Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism From Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 20–21, 46; Hoxie, Parading through History, 113.
106. Ostler, The Lakotas and the Black Hills, 58–79.
107. Hoxie, Parading through History, 48–124.
108. Anson Mills, “Remarks—Battle of the Rosebud,” 1917, Box 6, OIW, Carlisle Barracks; Donovan,A Terrible Glory, 143.
109. Donovan, ATerribleGlory, 261–278.
110. William H. C. Brown, “Remembrances of General Nelson A. Miles,” Box 2, William Carey Brown Papers, Carlisle Barracks.
111. Nickerson, “Crook and the Indians”; Ostler, Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism, 78.
112. Ostler, Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism, 200.
113. C. Joseph Genetin-Pilawa, Crooked Paths to Allotment: The Fight Over Federal Indian Policy after the Civil War (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 156; Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land, 257.
114. Helen Hunt Jackson, A Century of Dishonor: A Sketch of the United States Government’s Dealings with some of the Indian Tribes (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1995; 1881); Miles to Senator A. Saunders, December 17, 1878, Box 2, Miles Papers, Carlisle Barracks.
115. Genetin-Pilawa, Crooked Paths to Allotment.
116. Rand, Kiowa Humanity and the Invasion of the State, 45; Genetin-Pilawa, Crooked Paths to Allotment, 155–56.
117. Reyhner and Eder, American Indian Education, 113, 42–43.
118. Margaret D. Jacobs, White Mother to a Dark Race: Settler Colonialism, Maternalism, and the Removal of Indigenous Children in the American West and Australia, 1880–1940 (Linc
oln: University of Nebraska Press, 2009), 4. As Jacobs points out in her Bancroft Prize-winning book, the child removal program proved paradoxical for American women. “In their own quest for independence public authority, and equality, many white women undermined Indian women through their support for the removal of indigenous children.”(p. 433)
119. Reyhner and Eder, American Indian Education, 50, 73–74; Colin Calloway, First Peoples: A Documentary Survey of American Indian History,3rd ed.(NewYork: St. Martin’s Press, 2008), 386.
120. Ibid., 7, 143.
121. “In the White Man’s Image: The Tragic Attempt to Civilize Native Americans in the 1870s,”The American Experience video (PBS), 2007; 1992. Reyhner and Jeanne Eder, American Indian Education, 139–149.
122. Jacobs, White Mother to a Dark Race, 25.
123. Text of Dawes Act: http://www.nebraskastudies.org/0600/stories/0601_0200_01.html Andrew Denson, Demanding the Cherokee Nation: Indian Autonomy and American Culture, 1830–1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2004), 202.
124. J. Edward Chamberlin, “Homeland and Frontier,” in David Maybury-Lewis, Theodore Macdonald, and Biorn Maybury-Lewis, eds., Manifest Destinies and Indigenous Peoples (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 197.
125. Reyhner and Eder, American Indian Education, 85; Stuart Banner, How the Indians Lost Their Land: Law and Power on the Frontier (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press., 2005), 228.
126. Reyhner and Eder, American Indian Education, 82; A. M. Gibson, The Kickapoos: Lords of the Middle Border (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), 253; Weeks, Farewell, My Nation, 230.
127. Dippie, Vanishing American, 193.
128. Heather Cox Richardson, Wounded Knee: Party Politics and the Road to an American Massacre (New York: Basic Books, 2010).
129. Ostler, Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism, 168, 262; Blackhawk, Violence over the Land, 270.
130. Ibid., 61; Brig. Gen. G. W. McIver, “Account of the Participation of the Seventh U.S. Infantry in the Sioux Campaign of 1890–1891,” Box 8, OIW, Carlisle Barracks.
American Settler Colonialism: A History Page 41