35. Quoted in E. Jäckel, Hitler’s World View: A Blueprint for Power (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 89.
36. Quoted in Musolff, “What Role Do Metaphors Play in Racial Prejudice,” 31, 33.
37. V. E. Bonnell, Iconography of Power: Soviet Political Posters Under Lenin and Stalin (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1998). A. Nove, “Victims of Stalinism, How Many?” in Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives, eds. J. A. Getty and R. T. Manning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
38. V. Grossman, Forever Flowing (Chicago: Northwestern University Press, 1997), 142–143.
39. Ibid., 144.
40. X. Peng, “Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China’s Provinces,” Population and Development Review 13, no. 4 (1987): 639–670.
41. X. Lu, The Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Impact on Chinese Thought, Culture and Communication (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2004).
42. Ibid., 60.
43. Z. P. Luo, A Generation Lost: China Under the Cultural Revolution (New York: Henry Holt, 1990), 28. Quoted in X. Lu, The Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution, 92.
44. B. Kiernan, “The Cambodian Genocide,” in Encyclopedia of Genocide, vol. 1, ed. I. Charny (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1999), 131.
45. B. Kiernan, Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur (Newhaven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007), 549.
46. B. Kiernan, “The Cambodian Genocide.” P. Yathay, Stay Alive, My Son (New York: Touchstone, 1987), 73.
47. Quoted in Kiernan, Blood and Soil, 549–550.
48. N. Moyer, Escape from the Killing Fields (Grand Rapids, MI: Zonervan Publishing House, 1991), 123. A. L. Hinton, “Agents of Death: Explaining the Cambodian Genocide in Terms of Psychosocial Dissonance,” American Anthropologist 98, no. 4 (1996): 818–831.
49. J. D. Criddle and T. B. Mam, To Destroy You Is No Loss (New York: Anchor, 1987), 164. L. Picq, Beyond the Horizon: Five Years with the Khmer Rouge (New York: St. Martin’s Press), 100. D. Chandler, B. Kiernan and C. Boua, Pol Pot Plans the Future: Confidential Leadership Documents from Democratic Campuchea, 1976–1977. Monograph Series, 33 (New Haven CT: Yale University Southeast Asia Studies, 1988), 183. M. Stuart-Fox, The Murderous Revolution (Chippendale, Australia: Alternative Publishing Cooperative, 1985). A. L. Hinton, “Comrade Ox Did Not Object When His Family Was Killed,” in I. W. Charny, Encyclopedia of Genocide, Vol. I., 135. D. Chandler, Voices from S-21: Terror and History in Pol Pot’s Secret Prison (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1999). Goldhagen, Worse Than War, 371.
50. S. Mouth, “Imprinting Compassion,” in Children of Cambodia’s Killing Fields: Memoirs by Survivors, ed. K. DePaul (Newhaven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997), 179–180.
51. Quoted in Desforges, Leave None to Tell the Story: Genocide in Rwanda (Washington, DC: Human Rights Watch, 1999), 73.
52. B. Kiernan, Blood and Soil, 559.
53. The “cockroach” epithet became denigrating only secondarily. Originally, Tutsi militias referred to themselves as inyenzi, which was an acronym for a phrase roughly translated as “an insurgent who has committed himself to bravery.” The cockroach is a common choice for representing traditional enemies. When the eighteenth century Danish biologist Linnaeus gave the most common species of this insect a scientific name, he chose Blattella germanica (roughly, “German cockroach”) for no apparent reason other than hostility toward Germans. In Northern Germany the insects were called Schwabe (“Swabians”)—a derogatory reference to southern Germans. Not to be outdone, southern Germans referred to them as Preusse (“Prussian”). In western Germany they were Franzose (“French”) and in eastern Germany they were Russe (“Russians”). In Poland it’s prusak, which means “Prussian,” and in Newfoundland, they are “Yankee settlers.” M. Berenbaum, “Freedom Roaches,” American Entomologist 51, no. 1 (2005): 4,5, 10. J. Waller, Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).
54. Desforges, Leave None to Tell the Story.
55. R. Block, “The tragedy of Ruanda,” New York Review, October 20, 1994. Kiernan, Blood and Soil. C. Kagwi-Ndungu, The Challenges in Prosecuting Print Media for Incitement to Genocide, International Development Research Center. http://www.idrc.ca/fr/ev-108292-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html The comment by Rakiya Omaar is from M. Montgomery and S. Smith, “The Few Who Stayed: Defying Genocide in Rwanda,” American Radioworks, http://americanradioworks.publicradio.org/features/rwanda/segc2.html. J. Waller, Becoming Evil: How Ordinary People Commit Genocide and Mass Killing (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 247. J. M. V. Higiro, “Rwandan Private Print Media on the Eve of the Genocide,” in The Media and the Rwanda Genocide, ed. A. Thompson (London: Pluto Press, 2007). B. Nowrojee, “A Lost Opportunity for Justice: Why Did the ICTR Not Prosecute Gender Propaganda?,” in The Media and the Rwanda Genocide, ed. E. Thompson (London: Pluto Press, 2007). For “Operation Insecticide,” see A. Desforges, Leave None to Tell the Story.
56. Goldhagen, Worse Than War, 353.
57. Ibid., 182.
58. G. Prunier, Darfur: The Ambiguous Genocide (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005).
59. J. Hagan and W. Rymond-Richmond, “The Collective Dynamics of Racial Dehumanization and Genocidal Victimization in Darfur,” American Sociological Review 73: 875–902. Mahmood Mamdani argues that ethic conflict in Darfur is of recent vintage; see M. Mamdani, Saviors and Survivors: Darfur, Politics and the War on Terror (New York: Pantheon, 2009).
60. Hagan and Rymond-Richmond, “The Collective Dynamics of Racial Dehumanization and Genocidal Victimization in Darfur,” 882. H. Bashir, Tears of the Desert: A Memoir of Survival in Darfur (New York: Random House, 2009), 240.
61. W. Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, Act 3, Scene 3: 108–112.
62. This and all subsequent quotes from The Subhuman are from the English translation of Der Untermensch by Hermann Feuer at
63. Charny, Encyclopedia of Genocide, 241.
64. Der Untermensch, trans. Hermann Feuer.
65. L. Rees, Auschwitz: The Nazis and the Final Solution (London: BBC Books, 2001), 139.
66. The quotation and poem are from C. Koonz, The Nazi Conscience (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003), 137.
67. Ibid., 116.
68. Ibid., 197.
69. Ibid.
70. H. Trevor-Roper and A. Francois-Poncet (eds.) Hitler’s Politisches Testament: Die Bormann Diktate vom Februar und April 1945 (Hamburg: Albrecht Knaus, 1981), 66–69. Quoted in English translation in G. Heinsohn, “What Makes the Holocaust a Uniquely Unique Genocide?,” Journal of Genocide Research 2, no. 3 (2000), 412.
71. Koonz, The Nazi Conscience, Chapter 7.
6. RACE
1. L. E. Smith, Killers of the Dream (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1994), 13.
2. Ibid., 13–14.
3. B. Latter, “Genetic Differences Within and Between Populations of the Major Human Subgroups,” American Naturalist 116 (1980): 220–237, R. Lewontin, “The Aportionment of Human Diversity,” Evolutionary Biology 25 (1972): 276–280, R. Lewontin, “Are the Races Different?,” in D. Gill and L. Levidow (eds.), Anti-Racist Science Teaching (London: Free Association Books, 1987). For a fine critical discussion of the significance of race for contemporary biology, see S. M. Fullerton, “On the Absence of Biology in Philosophical Considerations of Race,” in Race and the Epistemologies of Ignorance, eds. S. Sullivan and N. Tuana (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2007) and also P. Kitcher, “Race, Ethnicity, Biology, Culture,” in In Mendel’s Mirror: Philosophical Reflections on Biology (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). T. H. Huxley, A. C. Haddon, and A. Carr-Saunders, We Europeans (London: Jonathan Cape, 1935), 266–267.
4. L. E. Smith, Killers of the Dream, 35–38.
5. For an excellent discussion of the debate between racial skeptic
s and racial constructionists, see R. Mallon, “Passing, traveling and reality: social constructionism and the metaphysics of race,” Noûs 38, no. 4 [2004]: 644–673. For examples of constructionist theories, see G. M. Fredrickson, The Arrogance of Race: Historical Perspectives on Slavery, Racism and Social Equality (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1988); A. Smedley, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1993).
6. To appreciate the full horror of life for African-Americans in the early twentieth century, see Douglas A. Blackmon’s eye-opening book Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York: Doubleday, 2008).
7. T. J. Curran, Xenophobia and Immigration, 1820–1930 (Boston: Thwayne, 1975); D. Roediger, Towards the Abolition of Whiteness: Essays on Race, Politics and Working Class History (London: Verso, 1994); M. F. Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000). Walker’s remarks are quoted in Jacobson, 157.
8. A. T. Vaughan, Roots of American Racism: Essays on the Colonial Experiment (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 33.
9. G. B. Nash, Race and Revolution (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 1990), 178.
10. E. Machery and L. Faucher, “Social Construction and the Concept of Race,” Philosophy of Science 72 (2005): 1208–1219.
11. For example, M. Banton, The Idea of Race (Boulder, CO: Westview Publishers, 1978); M. Banton, The Idea of Race (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987); B. Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983); W. D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (New York: Norton, 1968); E. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: Norton, 1975); M. Harris, Patterns of Race in America (New York: Walker, 1964); A. Smedley, Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1993).
12. Edouard Machery and Luc Faucher first suggested the label “cognitive-evolutionary approach” in their excellent paper, “Why Do We Think Racially?” published in H. Cohen and C. Lefebvre (eds.), Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science, eds. H. Cohen and C. Lefebvre (Philadelphia: Elsevier).
13. L. A. Hirschfeld, Race in the Making: Cognition, Culture and the Child’s Construction of Human Kinds (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998), xi.
14. A. Nevins (ed.), George Templeton Strong’s Diary of the Civil War, 1860–1865 (New York: Gramercy Books, 1962), 342–43.
15. Plato’s comment is from Phaedrus 265d–266a.
16. W. Wagner, et al., “An Essentialist Theory of ‘Hybrids’: From Animal Kinds to Ethnic Categories and Race,” Asian Journal of Social Psychology (forthcoming).
17. C. W. Mills, Blackness Visible: Essays on Philosophy and Race (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998), 60.
18. Ibid., 61. As well as making a philosophical point about race, Mills is also cracking a sly joke. The name Schwarzenegger can be construed as “schwarze Neger,” which means “black negro,” although the true etymology is probably “schwarzen Egger” (“black plowman”), or perhaps “one from Schwarzenegg.”
19. C. W. Kalish, “Essentialism to Some Degree: Beliefs About the Structure of Natural Kind Categories,” Memory and Cognition 30, no. 3 (2002): 340–352. W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe, quoted in I. Hannaford, Race: The History of an Idea in the West (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1996), 329.
20. Mills, Blackness Visible, 46. Possible-world aficionados will note that I am not assuming a Lewisian notion of worlds, which would forbid transworld identity.
21. L. A. Hirschfeld, “Who Needs a Theory of Mind?,” in Biological and Cultural Bases of Human Inference, ed. R. Viale, D. Andler, and L. Hirschfeld (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006), 154–155. Hirschfeld’s citations are to L. Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999), and R. A. Hahn, J. Mulinare, and S. M. Teutsch, “Inconsistencies in Coding of Race and Ethnicity Between Birth and Death in US Infants: A New Look at Infant Mortality, 1983 Through 1985,” Journal of the American Medical Association 267 (1992): 259–263.
22. Quoted in I. M. Resnick, “Medieval Roots of the Myth of Jewish Male Menses,” Harvard Theological Review 93, no. 3 (2000): 259.
23. B. Malamud, The Fixer (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1966), 139. Quoted in Resnick, 242.
24. D. Sperber, “Pourquois les animaux parfaits, les hybrids et les monstres sont-ils bon à penser symboliquement?,” L’homme 15 (1975): 22. Cited in English translation in S. Atran, Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 59.
25. S. A. Gelman, The Essential Child: Origins of Essentialism in Everyday Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 10. See also D. Medin, “Concepts and Conceptual Structure,” American Psychologist 44 (1989): 1469–1481.
26. G. E. Newman and F. C. Keil, “Where Is the Essence? Developmental Shifts in Children’s Beliefs about Internal Features,” Child Development 79, no. 5 (2008): 1353.
27. M. J. Harner, The Jívaro: People of the Sacred Waterfall (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), 149.
28. C. S. Brown, Refusing Racism: White Allies and the Struggle for Civil Rights (New York: Teachers College Press, 2002), 14.
29. B. Russell, Unpopular Essays (New York: Routledge, 1995).
30. A. Rao, “Blood, Milk and Mountains: Marriage Practice and Concepts of Predictability Among the Bakkarwal of Jammu and Kashmir,” in Culture, Creation and Procreation: Concepts of Kinship in South Asian Practice, eds. M. Böck and A. Rao (New York: Berghahn Books, 2000), 107.
31. J. Golden, A Social History of Wet-Nursing in America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 152–153. Terhune’s anecdote is from M. Harland, Eve’s Daughters: Common Sense for Maid, Wife and Mother (New York: J. R. Anderson, 1882), 30–32. Winters’s remarks are from J. E. Winters, “The Relative Influences of Maternal and Wet-nursing on Mother and Child,” Medical Record 30 (1886), 513. For lactational heredity in seventeenth-century France see C. C. Fairchilds, Domestic Enemies: Servants and Their Masters in Old Régime France (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984) and E. Marvick, “Nature versus Nurture: Patterns and Trends in Seventeenth Century French Childrearing,” in History of Childhood, ed. L. de Mause (New York: Psychohistory Press, 1974). For Dutch colonists, see A. L. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s “History of Sexuality” and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, NC: Duke University Press).
32. F. J. Davis, Who Is Black? One Nation’s Definition (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1991).
33. W. Wagner et al., “An Essentialist Theory of ‘Hybrids’: From Animal Kinds to Ethnic Categories and Race,” Asian Journal of Social Psychology, in press.
34. The term ethnoraces was coined by University of California philosopher David Theo Goldberg, and also used by Lawrence Hirschfeld. See D. T. Goldberg, Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning (London: Blackwell, 1993).
35. M. Raudsepp and W. Wagner, “The Essentially Other: Representational Processes That Divide Groups,” in Trust and Distrust Between Groups: Interaction and Representations, eds. I. Marková et al. (forthcoming).
36. S. Atran, “Folk Biology and the Anthropology of Science: Cognitive Universals and Cultural Particulars,” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 21 (1998): 547–569.
37. G. Kober, Biology Without Species: A Solution to the Species Problem (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Boston University, 2009). D. N. Stamos, The Species Problem, Biological Species, Ontology, and the Metaphysics of Biology (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2004).
38. The notion of modularity was introduced into cognitive science by the philosopher Jerry Fodor. Fodor’s original concept of cognitive modules is quite different from the notion of Darwinian modules later developed by evolutionary psycholog
ists. For a good account of both Fodorian and Darwinian versions of modularity, see J. L. Bermúdez, Philosophy of Psychology: A Contemporary Introduction (New York: Routledge, 2005). An excellent resource for debates about modularity and innateness is the collection of papers in the three volumes of P. Carruthers, S. Laurence, and S. Stich (eds.), The Innate Mind (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, 2006, 2007).
39. P. Boyer and C. Barratt, “Domain Specificity and Intuitive Ontology,” in Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, ed. D. M. Buss (New York: Wiley, 2005), 97. Boyer and Barratt cite A. W. Young, D. Hellawell, and D. C. Hay, “Configurational Information in Face Perception,” Perception 16, no. 6 (1987): 747–759; J. Tanaka and J. A. Sengco, “Features and Their Configuration in Face Recognition,” Memory and Cognition 25, no. 5 (1997): 583–592; M. Farah, K. D. Wilson, H. M. Drain and J. R. Tanaka, “The Inverted Face Inversion Effect in Prosopagnosia: Evidence for Mandatory, Face-Specific Perceptual Mechanisms,” Vision Research 35 (1995): 2089–2093; J. Morton and M. Johnson, “CONSPEC and CONLERN: A Two-Process Theory of Infant Face Recognition,” Psychological Review 98 (1991): 164–181; O. Pascalis, S. de Schonen, J. Morton, C. Druelle et al., “Mothers Face Recognition by Neonates: A Replication and an Extension,” Infant Behavior and Development 18, no 1 (1995): 79–85; A. Slater and P. C. Quinn, “Face Recognition in the New-born Infant,” Infant and Child Development Special Issue: Face Processing in Infancy and Early Childhood 10, nos. 1–2 (2001): 21–24; M. Farah, “Specialization Within Visual Object Recognition: Clues From Prosopagnosia and Alexia,” in G. R. Martha and J. Farah (eds.) The Neuropsychology of High-Level Vision: Collected Tutorial Essays. Carnegie Mellon Symposia on Cognition (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1994); B. C. Duchaine, “Developmental Prosopagnosia with Normal Configural Processing,” Neuroreport: For Rapid Communication of Neuroscience Research 11, no. 1 (2000): 79–83; P. Michelon and I. Biederman, “Less Impairment in Face Imagery Than Face Perception in Early Prosopagnosia,” Neuropsychologia 31, no. 4 (2003): 421–441; N. Kanwisher, J. McDermott, and M. M. Chun, “The Fusiform Face Area: A Module in Human Extrastriate Cortex Specialized for Face Perception,” Journal of Neuroscience 17, no. 11 (1997): 4302–4211; J. V. Haxby, E. A. Hoffman, and M. I. Gobbini, “Human Neural Systems for Face Recognition and Social Communication,” Biological Psychiatry 51, no. 1 (2002): 59–67.
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