[35] Giantesses are rarely said to be able to change their size in the sagas, but Harthgrepa in Saxo’s Danish History can do this (I.20-22; Ellis Davidson and Fisher, transl., pp. 22-23). Giantesses are frequently depicted as lustful for human men (Jóhanna Friðriksdóttir, Women in Old Norse Literature, pp. 67-69).
[36] This is a twist on the motif of the hero finding the only weapon that will kill the monster in the monster’s own lair (K818.2, “Giantess killed with the spear she herself has given hero”, in Thompson, Motif-Index of Folk Literature, vol. 4, p. 342). See note 17 to Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar.
[37] As discussed in the Introduction, the Hundings (“dog people”) are probably derived from medieval European traditions concerning the monstrous races at the far ends of the world, dating back to the Cynocephali of the Roman author Pliny the Elder but possibly also drawing on an independent northern European tradition.
[38] As discussed in the Introduction, Bjarmaland is the land on the shores of the White Sea; There are historical accounts of Norse voyages to Bjarmaland, but in the legendary sagas, Bjarmaland is always a place of sorcery, monsters, and exotic treasures. This episode may be compared with the Bjarmaland temple in Bósa saga ok Herrauds (ch. 8), which also holds amazing treasures and monstrous guardians.
[39] Zitzelberger suggests that both the Hundings and the temple are borrowed from Adam of Bremen’s History of the Archbishops of Hamburg–Bremen, which mentions both the Hundings (Cynocephali) living on the north Baltic coast, and the pagan temple at Uppsala. (The Two Versions of Sturlaugs saga starfsama, p. 307)
[40] This scene references a scene in Völsunga saga (ch. 8), in which Sigmund and Sinfjotli are imprisoned in a barrow with stone-walled chambers. Unlike Völsunga saga and a similar scene in Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar (ch. 29), a friendly woman does not smuggle food and weapons into the hero’s prison. However, Sturlaug is like Sigmund in that he saws through the stone with his weapon. Since Völsunga saga is thought to have reached its present form around 1300, this places a limit on the date of Sturlaugs saga (Zitzelberger, The Two Versions of Sturlaugs saga starfsama, pp. 5-6).
[41] A common way of asking for help from a helper in folktales and legendary sagas; see Einar Ólafur Sveinsson, The Folk-Stories of Iceland, p. 257)
[42] The god Freyr, also known as Yngvi and Yngvi-Freyr, was said to be the founder of the Yngling dynasty that ruled Sweden in legendary times (Ynglinga saga ch. 10, trans. Hollander, Heimskringla, pp. 13-14). Presumably this is who is meant here, although the saga author gives no sign that he understood Ingvi-Frey to be a deity.
[43] Another Rondolf from Bjarmaland appears in Göngu-Hrolfs saga (ch. 30); this Rondolf is part giant, prone to battle-frenzy, and armed with a huge club.
[44] Sturlaugs rímur, a retelling of the saga, concludes with this victory over the Hundings (transl. Zitzelberger, The Two Version of Sturlaugs saga starfsama, pp. 412-40), as does the later “version B” of the saga. Both the rímur and version B of the saga may be derived from an earlier version of the saga that lacked the story of the Yule oaths. (Sanders, “Sturlaugs saga starfsama”, p. 2)
[45] Oaths sworn at Yule feasts seem to have been especially binding and significant; they appear in several fornaldarsögur (e.g. Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks ch. 2; Ketils saga hængs ch. 4) and other sources (e.g. Harðar saga ok Hólmverja ch. 14; Helgakvíða Hjörvarðssonar in the Poetic Edda).
[46] This is a heitstrenging or “oath contest” in which each man must swear an oath no less worthy than those that have already been sworn. This particular episode may be based on the story of the Jómsvíkings’ oaths (Jómsvíkinga saga ch. 26, transl. Blake, The Saga of the Jomsvikings, pp. 28-29; Óláfs saga Tryggvasonar ch. 35, trans. Hollander, Heimskringla, pp. 175-176). But similar oaths to accomplish great feats—including oaths to get into bed with unattainable women—are also found in medieval romances and in a number of Icelandic riddarasögur. See Schlauch, Romance in Iceland, pp. 102-103.
[47] This could be an ordinary message, but other sagas mention rune-inscribed objects used as magical charms to affect a woman’s mind or emotions (e.g. Egils saga chs. 73, 77; History of the Danes III.79, p. 77). Rune-carved sticks have been excavated and dated to the 13th and 14th centuries; they include both mundane letters and apparent love charms (Liestol, “Runes of Bergen”).
[48] The texts Hversu Nóregr byggðist [How Norway Was Settled] and Fundinn Nóregr [The Finding of Norway; usually included as the opening chapters of Orkneyinga saga] give the genealogy of the legendary King Snær the Old, “Snow”, who lived in the far north. His daughters are Fönn, “Snowdrift”; Drífa, “Snowfall”; and Mjöll, “Snow Powder”. Drífa was said to have married Vanlandi, the Yngling king of Sweden (Ynglinga saga ch. 13, Heimskringla, trans. Hollander, pp. 16-17). In Bárðar saga snæfellsáss (ch. 1), Mjöll is said to have been abducted by the giant king Dumbr and become the mother of the legendary Icelander Bard Snæfellsass.
[49] In the sagas, Gestr—“guest” in Old Norse—or a variant of the name, is a common pseudonym used by wanderers who are seeking lodging. (e.g. this saga ch. 25; Norna-Gests þáttr ch. 1; Hervarar saga ch. 10)
[50] Sanders (“Sturlaugs saga starfsama” p. 6) suggests that the substitution of Frosti for Sturlaug on the wedding night might be yet another takeoff on Völsunga saga—this time on the episode in which Sigurd wins Brynhild while disguised as Gunnar (ch. 29, trans. Byock, pp. 80-82).
[51] “To turn toward” (snúast at) someone is a common euphemism for sexual intercourse (Jochens, Women in Old Norse Society, pp. 72-73); we should probably assume that Frosti and Mjoll are in copula as the conversation is going on.
[52] Several legendary sagas mention cows or bulls that have been turned monstrous and savage by being worshipped (Ragnars saga loðbrókar chs. 8-9, 12; Hjálmþés saga ok Ölvis ch. 10; Þorsteins þáttr uxafóts ch. 13). Ynglinga saga (ch. 26; Heimskringla, trans. Hollander, p. 30) mentions that King Egil Aunsson was killed by a bull which had turned savage while being kept for sacrifice.
[53] Guðni Jónsson’s text based on AM 173 has þat mun hneppa mik á kaf undir sik ok halda niðri, “it will hold me in the sea under itself and keep [me] down,” which seems odd. I’ve emended the text using manuscript AM 335 4to, which has briota dyrit i kaf undir sig ok hallda nidri, “[he] will force it into the sea under himself and hold it down.” (Zitzelberger, The Two Versions of Sturlaugs saga starfsama, pp. 25.46-26.1) Also noteworthy is that in AM 173, Godrid speaks of herself in the third person as the auroch’s killer; in AM 335, she says that someone named Geirreydr will kill the aurochs. Assuming that Geirreydr is the same name as the normalized form Geirröðr, then Geirreydr would presumably be male, since a male giant by that name is attested elsewhere in Norse myth.
[54] Saxo’s History of the Danes mentions other instances of supernatural women associated with cows or cow-like beasts from the sea: one killed by Hadding (I.29-30; transl. Ellis-Davidson and Fisher, pp. 29-30) and one that kills Frothi (V.171-172, transl. Ellis-Davidson and Fisher, pp. 157-158). There is also the uncanny four-horned bull who is the son of a supernatural woman in Laxdæla saga ch. 31. The saga does not parallel Saxo’s accounts closely, but it may be referring to (or parodying) these or similar tales. Thompson lists a folk motif from the Baltic that the Devil’s cows have only one horn (A2286.2.3; Motif-Index of Folk Literature, vol. 1, p. 282).
[55] Several other sagas make it clear that women from the Finnic peoples of the far North have powerful magic and are dangerous to take as wives. Examples include Snæfrid in Haralds saga hárfagra (ch. 25, trans. Hollander, Heimskringla, pp. 80-81), Drífa in Ynglinga saga (ch. 13, trans. Hollander, p. 16), and Gunnhild in Egils saga and several others.
[56] Guðni Jónsson’s text based on AM
173 says that they go vestr til Gautlands, “westward to Götland,” which makes no sense; I’ve emended the text from AM 335, which has austr til Gardalandz, “eastward to Russia.” (Zitzelberger, The Two Versions of Sturlaugs saga starfsama, p. 26.26)
[57] Norse Aldeigjuborg, the present-day Staraya Ladoga.
[58] Several historical sagas list female healers who treat wounds and illness, and Ellis-Davidson (Roles of the Northern Goddess, p. 161-163) suggests that the Norse may have seen women as especially gifted in healing. But the gentle princess who heals anyone in need probably derives from the riddarasögur; compare Ingigerd with Ísodd in Tristrams saga (ch. 29; trans. Schach, pp. 46-47), or with princesses in the native riddarasögur such as Cecilia in Mírmanns saga (chs. 14-15; trans. O’Connor, Icelandic Histories, pp. 268-269) or Nítíða and Sýjalín in Nítíða saga (chs. 1, 5; transl. McDonald, “Nítíða saga,” pp. 124-127, 142-143), or with healer-princesses in several other romances (Schlauch, Romance in Iceland, p. 153)
[59] Although she is not depicted as a ruler, Ingigerd resembles the “maiden king” (meykongr) figures of Icelandic romances; however, the typical meykongr disdains the very idea of marriage and sends her suitors packing with harsh words and mockery. (Kalinké, Bridal-Quest Romance, pp. 99-100) Framar’s failed attempts to woo her may be parodies of “maiden king” episodes in other sagas.
[60] Snækollr means “snow-peak” or “snow-head”. If the name means that Framar is old, or pretending to be old, this episode may be a parody of the old king who courts a young bride, seen in Hrólfs saga Gautrekssonar chs. 1-2 and Völsunga saga ch. 11 (see this book, p. XX). Oddly enough, a Viking named Snækollr appears in the saga later and seemingly turns out to be one of King Ingvar’s allies; this seems rather awkwardly tacked on.
[61] The Old Norse word translated “sorcerers” is seiðmenn, i.e. men who practice seiðr. Seiðr is a type of magic, sometimes used to foretell the future or to protect someone in battle, but often used to create illusions and confuse enemies. According to Snorri Sturluson (Ynglinga saga ch. 7; Heimskringla, trans. Hollander, p. 11), its use was considered unmanly. There are instances in historical sagas of kings putting seiðmenn to death (e.g. Haralds saga hárfagra ch. 34; Heimskringla, trans. Hollander, pp. 88-89).
[62] Persons who magically shape-shift may be recognized by their eyes; see, for example, Kormaks saga ch. 18, or the legendary Ketils saga hængs ch. 3; or Ála flekks saga ch. 10 (transl. Bachmann and Erlingson, Six Old Icelandic Sagas, p. 51).
[63] This is probably a parody of episodes in other sagas in which a wounded man has to keep his internal organs from falling out, such as Bolli in Laxdæla saga (ch. 60), Starkad the Old in Sögubrót (ch. 9), and Hromund Gripsson in Hrómundar saga Gripssonar (ch. 7).
[64] The author evidently forgot to explain who Hvitserk is. The name (“White Shirt”) is fairly common in legendary sagas for princes of foreign lands, so presumably he is Ingvar’s son or kinsman.
[65] Heinrek and Ingolf aren’t mentioned in other fornaldarsögur. Göngu-Hrólfs saga lists four sons of Sturlaug and Asa: Rögnvaldr, Fraðmarr, Eirekr, and the saga’s protagonist Hrólfr (ch. 4). Presumably this version of Sturlaugs saga pre-dates Göngu-Hrólfs saga (Zitzelberger, The Two Version of Sturlaugs saga starfsama, p. 6).
[66] Peace-Frodi (Frið-Fróði) is mentioned in the Poetic Edda (Gróttasöngr, Introductory Prose, transl. Orchard, The Elder Edda, p. 257), the Skjöldunga saga (trans. Miller, “Fragments of Danish History”, ch. 3, p. 10), and Saxo’s Danish History (V.170, transl. Ellis-Davidson and Fisher, pp. 156-157) as a legendary king of Denmark, whose reign was marked by surpassing peace and fruitfulness. Christian writers thought of him as living at the time of Christ, dying some time after the Crucifixion.
THE SAGA OF HROLF THE WALKER
Göngu-Hrólfs saga
FOREWORD
Men have composed many tales for entertainment, some according to ancient lays[1] or the knowledge of learned men, and sometimes according to old books, which originally were set down briefly, but were later filled out with words, because most events are quicker in the telling. Men are never equally well informed, because it often happens that what’s seen and heard by one isn’t seen and heard by another, even though they’re present at the same event. And it’s also in the nature of many foolish men to believe only what they see with their own eyes or hear with their own ears. They find that what came of the schemes of wise men, or the mighty strength or surpassing skill of great men, is far beyond their own natures—and this is no less the case concerning trickery, or wizardry and mighty magic, when they conjured up eternal misfortune or loss of life for some, and for others, worldly reputation, riches, and honors. Sometimes they stirred up the elements and sometimes calmed them down—men such as Odin was, and the others who learned spellcraft or healing from him. There are even cases where certain bodies have been able to move through the inspiration of an unclean spirit, such as Eyvind Split-Cheek in the saga of Olaf Tryggvason, or Einar Cormorant, or Frey whom Gunnar Half-and Half killed in Sweden.[2]
Now neither this, nor anything else, can be made to suit everyone’s tastes, since there’s no need to place more trust in such things than seems fitting. The best and wisest thing is to listen while it’s being told, and be cheerful rather than grieved, because it’s always the case that men don’t think of other, sinful things while they are enjoying the entertainment. And it doesn’t sit well for bystanders to criticize, even if the words go unwisely or clumsily, since few things which are as trivial as this are done perfectly.[3]
CHAPTER I
This story begins with a king named Hreggvid who ruled over the realm of Novgorod, which some men call Russia. He was tall and strong, the handsomest man and the boldest fighter, courageous and a great warrior, wise and shrewd, most generous to his friends, but severe and stern to his enemies. In most respects he was well gifted. He had been married to a queen of noble descent, but she isn’t named and doesn’t come into this saga. He had one child with his queen, a daughter by the name of Ingigerd. She was the loveliest and most refined of all the women there were in all Russia, and even beyond. She excelled everyone in wisdom and eloquence. She knew all the skills that suited a woman and which ladies of quality plied near and far. She had hair so long that it might well conceal all her body, and it was as fair as gold or straw.[4] The king loved his daughter very much. She had a home all her own, inside the town. It was a splendid dwelling, built strongly and soundly, and beautifully wrought with gold and gemstones. She stayed in this house every day, along with the other maidens who served her.
King Hreggvid was quite elderly at that time. It is said that when the king was young, he had frequently set out raiding, and he had conquered the region around the Don River, which flows through Russia.[5] From there, he had raided various realms in the East, and so acquired rare treasures. (This river is the third or the fourth largest in the world. Yngvar the Far-Traveler searched for the source of this river, as is told in his saga.[6]) King Hreggvid was on that journey for seven years all told, and men thought he was dead—but then he returned to Russia and settled down quietly. He had acquired a horse who could understand human speech. His name was Dulcifal. He was as swift as a bird, as agile as a lion, and as huge as a wolf. There was no horse like him in size and strength. If his rider was destined for defeat, he wouldn’t let himself be caught—but if he was fated to win victory, then he carried him as his own master.[7]
He had a suit of armor, and there was none other like it, for the helmet was all set with gemstones and was so hard that it was invincible. His entire mailcoat was forged from three layers of the hardest steel, as bright as silver. The shield was so broad and thick that iron couldn’t bite into it. The lance that went with it was stiff and tough, and rang like a bell if it were knocked against the shield—but if defeat were certain, it gave no s
ound.[8] The sword was never checked in its stroke, and was enchanted to bite steel and stone as easily as soft flesh. It was made of iron from the fjord called Ger, which can neither rust nor break. Dulcifal was related to the dromedaries, a type of horse.[9] King Hreggvid had never suffered defeat since he got the horse and these weapons. His kingdom was constantly being invaded, and he and his men were always fighting huge battles.
The king had many counsellors and picked men with him. One of them was named Sigurd, called Wool-Yarn.[10] He was the grandson of Halfdan Red-Cloak who was the son of Burned-Kari. He was quite fearless, well-liked by all the people, and elderly. He had stayed with the king for a long time and served him well in many dangers.
CHAPTER II
There was a king named Eirek, a sea-king and a Gastriklander by birth. Gastrikland is ruled by the King of Sweden. Its inhabitants are strong and resemble giants; they are fierce and unruly, and gifted in sorcery. King Eirek was a tall and powerful man, with a dark complexion and a very gaunt appearance. He sailed out in winter and summer with a fleet of ships, raiding in various lands. He was the greatest fighter and very warlike. He had a beautiful sister named Gyda, and she was always with him.
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